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b/1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/4.4-linking.md @@ -1,133 +1,128 @@ -# 4.1 句子 +# 4.4. 连接 -一句话由一个或者多个词汇构成 —— 当一句话由多个词汇构成的时候,有个重要的现象: +一个**意群**内可能有若干个**单词**,而每个单词都由至少一个音节构成 —— 于是,一连串的音节之间,可能会构成单独朗读时不存在的连接。 -> * 有些词会被**强读**(***accented** form*) -> * 有些词会被**弱读**(***weak** form*) +相邻的两个词之间,可能产生的连接通常有以下三种: -即,不是每个词都是以同样的方式读出来的。 +> 1. 辅音 + 元音 +> 2. 辅音 + 辅音 +> 3. 元音 + 元音 -仔细听听以下例句: +## 4.4.1 辅音 + 元音(Consonant + Vowel) -> **TEXT**: -> * The art of focus in our whirlwind existence can sometimes feel like searching for a needle in a haystack. -> * The ðɪ art ˈɑːrt of ɒv focus ˈfoʊkəs in ɪn our ˌaʊɚ whirlwind ˈwɝːlwɪnd existence ˈɪɡzɪstəns can kæn sometimes ˈsʌmtaɪmz feel ˈfiːl like ˈlaɪk searching ˈsɝːtʃɪŋ for fɔːr a ə needle ˈniːdəl in ɪn a ə haystack ˈheɪstæk -> -> **AUDIO**: -> * 逐字朗读版本 -> * 自然连贯版本 -> * 弱读的词汇:The art *of* focus *in* *our* whirlwind existence *can* sometimes feel *like* searching *for* a needle *in* a haystack. -> * 相对强读的词汇:The **art** of **focus** in our **whirlwind** existence can **sometimes** **feel** like **searching** for a **needle** in a **haystack**. +在词汇内部,“辅音 + 元音” 当然可以构成一个音节;在同一个**意群**(thought group)中,如果**以辅音结尾的词汇**遇到**以元音开头的词汇**的话,那么前一个词末尾的**辅音**和后一个词开头的**元音**很可能会连起来读,听起来构成一个**音节**,这种方式叫做**连读**。 -这是一上来就需要调整(或者纠正)的习惯: +比如在 *People's opinions vary from individual to individual.* 在这句话中,*People's* 末尾的 z 和 *opinions* 开头的 ə 会连在一起,piː·pəl·zə·ˈpɪ·njənz —— 感觉上是在读一整个由 *5* 个音节构成的词汇一样…… -> **不能像词典一样读句子里的每一个单词**。 +这类连读,其实无需刻意,只要做到前面一个词末尾的辅音发声器官动作完整,而后能够熟练且又清楚地说出下一个元音开头的词汇,语音就会自然而然连接起来。 -## 4.1.1. 弱读词汇 +这类**连读**中有相当难度乃至于必须刻意练习的其实只有两种,tl 构成的连读。 -首先要学会的是,把一些 “虚词” —— 根据情况,比如助动词、系动词、介词、连词、冠词、代词等等 —— 弱读。 +之前提到过,在美式英语里,t 有个特殊的现象,它夹在两个元音之间的时候会被浊化,被读成弹舌音,用 表示,听起来接近 d…… 比如,在 city ˈsɪt̬i 这个词汇里, t 就夹在两个元音之间,所以读成 。 -比如,在以上的例句中,*of* 不是 ɒv 而是 əv, əf, ə 甚至 ɤ,*in* 不是带着重音的 ˈɪn 而是很轻的 ɪn, ən, *our* 不是 ˌaʊɚ 而是 ɑr,*can* 不是 kæn 而是 kən,*like* laɪk 中的双元音 读得很短,*for* 不是 fɔːr 而是 …… +在自然语流里,同一个意群中,经常会出现以 t 结尾的词汇后面跟着一个以元音开头的词汇,并且,t 的前面是元音的概率也很高,所以,词汇之间出现 t 的浊化弹舌音 的情况非常普遍。比如,*Get it done.* ɡet̬ ɪt dʌn -以下是其中最常见的强读式、弱读式对照列表。 +l 构成的连读,对绝大多数人来说,难点在于,如果前一个单词末尾的 l **舌尖动作不够完整**的话(即,结束的时候舌尖没有贴到龈脊)那么,l 这个弹舌音就发不出来,无法与后面的元音连上…… 尤其是在没有纠正掉用嘴唇动作替代舌尖动作的错误(乃至于有 ʊ 的音色)的情况下。 + +请仔细听一遍以下的录音,注意所有以 l 作为末尾的音节: + +> Whether the *goal of* an insurgency has been to establish the Christian religion in the days of the Roman Empire, to create an interstate commerce commission in nineteenth-century America, or to promote civil rights for minorities in the twentieth century, what a *successful insurgency* does in *institutional or* process terms is to change the incentives and constraints facing others, *as well as* the incentives and constraints facing themselves and their successors.[^1] + +在以上这段录音中,*goal‿of*, *successful‿insurgency*, *as well‿as*, 都有前一个单词末尾的 l 与后一个单词开头的元音之间轻微的连读。但,*institutional or* 之间却没有 —— 因为这两个词汇实际上分别属于前后不同的意群。 + +初学者容易矫枉过正,想把一切自己遇到的词汇间 “辅音 + 元音” 的组合连起来读…… 请注意,是**很可能**连起来读,但**并不一定**。首先,这多少与个人讲话的习惯有关。更为重要的是,讲话的时候要划分**意群**,意群之间要有**暂停**(*pause*)—— 前一个意群末尾的辅音和下一个意群开头的元音,不应该连读。 + +并且,即便是在同一个意群里,也不能时时刻刻连读,有时盲目连读会出现歧义。 + +> 比如在这句话之中: +> +> * She will cherish those memories and ever hold them close to her heart. +> +> 如果 and ever,非要连起来读,前面的 and 可能被弱读作 æn, ən,而后要是非要与后面的 ˈev.ɚ 连起来,就可能被听成 ə.nˈev.ɚ(and never)—— 那岂不是可能会被理解成相反的意思? > [!Note] -> 这个列表不能当作**硬规则**使用,不是所有的虚词都必须被弱读;也不是所有的实词都必须被强读 —— 根据情况,这些词在自然语流中也有被强读的时候。 +> +> 目前(2024.03) OpenAI 的 TTS 引擎生成的语音中,*l + vowels* 的组合总是没有连读效果 —— 也许将来的版本会改进? -> * a: ə -> * am: æməm, m -> * an: ænən, n -> * and: ændənd, nd, ən, n -> * any: 'enini -> * are: /ɑ/:ə -> * as: æsəz -> * at: ætət -> * but: bʌtbət -> * can: kænkən, kn, kŋ -> * could: kudkəd, kd -> * do: duːdu, də, d -> * does: dʌzdəz -> * for: fɔːfə, f -> * from: frɔmfrəm, frm -> * had: hædhəd, əd, d -> * has: hæzhəz, əz -> * have: hævhəv, həf, əv, əf -> * he: hiːhi, iː, i -> * her: həːhə, əː, ə -> * him: himim -> * his: hiziz -> * I: aiaː, ə -> * is: izs, z -> * many: 'menimni -> * me: miːmi -> * must: mʌstməst, məs -> * my: maimi -> * of: əvəv, v, f, ə -> * our: ɑʊɚ/ɑrɑ/ -> * shall: ʃælʃəl, ʃl -> * she: ʃiːʃi -> * should: ʃudʃəd, ʃd, ʃt -> * so: səʊ -> * some: sʌmsəm, sm -> * such: sʌʧsəʧ -> * than: ðænðən, ðn -> * that: ðætðət -> * the: /ði/:ði, ðə -> * them: ðemðəm, ðm, əm, m -> * then: ðenðən -> * to: tuːtu, tə, t -> * us: usəs -> * was: wɔzwəz, wə -> * we: wiːwi -> * were: wəː -> * when: wenwən -> * will: wɪl/əl, l/ -> * would: wuːdwəd, əd -> * you: juːju, jə +## 4.4.2. 辅音 + 辅音(Consonant + Consonant) -## 4.1.2. 强读词汇 +“**辅音 + 辅音**” 的组合需要注意的地方相对较多。 -事实上,在自然语流中,讲话者经常调整强读(强调)的词汇,用来表达不同的含义。试比较以下同一个句子的 4 个版本[^1],在不同的版本里,被强读的词汇不同: +## 4.4.2.1 省音(elision) -> * **Marianna** made the **marmalade**. -> * **Marianna** made the marmalade. -> * **Marianna** **made** the **marmalade**. -> * Marianna made the **marmalade**? +“**辅音 + 辅音**” 的组合,常常会造成前一个辅音虽然发声器官(*articulator*)动作完整但并不发声的情况,于是会出现一个既 “听不到” 也 “看不见” 的**停顿**(*stop*),之前举过单词内存在这种情况的例子,*hotdog* ˈhɑːtdɑːɡ 和 *network* ˈnetwɝːk,再比如,*hard-nosed* hɑːrd-noʊzd, *partner* ˈpɑːrtnɚ…… -拿第 1 个版本为例,请参照以下图示: +有人把这种现象叫做 **省音**(*elision*);但,这种说法容易产生误导,因为音的确是省了,但,动作却没省,不仅没有省,**动作还很完整**。 -![nuclear-accented-words](/images/nuclear-accented-words.svg) +在意群中,更是经常出现前一个词汇末尾是辅音,后一个词汇开头也是辅音的情况 —— 同样会出现**省音**。 -同样一个句子,**强调**不同的**词**可能表达不同的含义[^2]: +## 4.4.2.2. 叠音(geminates) -> * Will **you** drive to the office tommorrow? (rather than someone else) -> * Will you **drive** to the office tommorrow? (rather than going some other way) -> * Will you drive **to** the office tommorrow? (rather than from the office) -> * Will you drive to the **office** tommorrow? (rather than somewhere else) -> * Will you drive to the office **tommorrow**? (rather than some other day) +上一个音节末尾的辅音和下一个音节开头的辅音相同的时候,这一对相同的辅音被称作**叠音**(*geminates*)。在连贯的自然语音中,这两个辅音就只发声一次 —— 但听起来的时候,有可能感受到前一个辅音存在造成细微停顿。它从机制上来看,其实和**省音**([4.4.2.1](2.4.3-cc#_2-4-3-1-省音-elision))一样。其实哪怕相邻的两个辅音相似的时候,也会发生同样的现象。 -被**强读**的词汇之中,重音音节往往带着**声调** —— 升、降、平、降升。并且,少数重音音节会有被拔高的**音高**。这些都是自然语流的韵律中格外重要的组成部分,也是跟读模仿练习时的重点之一。 +比如,*that time*, 不是 ðæt taɪm/,而是 ðæ·t̬aɪm —— 第一个 t 由于后面跟着一个辅音,于是产生了**省音**,听不到了,但,该有的停顿却依然在,在这里我们用 · 代表那个停顿 ;而后,第二个 t 与第三个 t 是**叠音**,这两个 t 只发声一次。又比如,*bad day*, 不是 bæd deɪ,而是 bæ·deɪ。 再比如,*with this*, 不是 wɪθ ðɪs,而是 wɪ·ðɪs。 -## 4.1.3. 强弱带来的变化 +## 4.4.2.3. 同化(assimilation) -如果一个音节是重音或被**强读**,那么这个单词中的: +同化(*assimilation*)主要有两种情况: -> * 长元音会被读的很清楚,并且足够长,甚至显得更长一些; -> * 双元音会被读的很饱满,并且显得很有弹性; -> * 落在重音上的短元音都会显得更长一些; -> * 重音所在的音节可能带着不同的声调(平调、升调、降调、降升)…… -> * 重音所在的音节可能带着更高的音高(往往是 “高”、“中”、“低” 中的 “高”)…… +> * t + j = +> * d + j = -如果一个音节被**弱读**,那么这个单词中的: +最常见的比如,*Don't you?* doʊn tʃju?;以及,*Would you?* wʊ dʒju? 这里的关键在于,t, d 发声时起始的舌尖位置如果放对了([2.2.3](2.2.3-td)),它与后面的 ju 连起来的发声就只能如此。 -> * 长元音会变得短一些(几乎与短元音的长度相当); -> * 重音音节会变得与非重音音节一样轻; -> * 很多元音都会发生变化,向 *schwa* ə靠拢; -> * 很多与辅音相关的停顿会被直接省略; -> * 清辅音 stkf 之后的元音 ə 可能会直接被省略掉; -> * 整个单词所处的音高往往是 “高”、“中”、“低” 之中的 “低”,最多是 “中”…… +同化主要发生在 j 这个音上。除了已经讲过的 j 前面遇到 td 时会产生同化之外, -其实,哪怕在单独读某一个单词的时候,其中元音的长短都会受到重音重读的影响。比如,*city* 这个单词,重音在第一个音节上,而两处的元音是一样的:ˈsɪ-t̬ɪ;但是只要你把第一个音节读得足够重,自然而然就能感觉到**第一个音节**只能比**第二个音节**更长。 +> * s + j = ʃ +> * z + j = ʒ -[^1] 这个例子来自于 [Macquarie University](https://www.mq.edu.au/about/about-the-university/our-faculties/medicine-and-health-sciences/departments-and-centres/department-of-linguistics/our-research/phonetics-and-phonology/speech/phonetics-and-phonology/Intonation-tobi-introduction) -[^2] 这个例子来自于 *Manual of American English Pronunciation*, 4th edition, by Clifford H. Prator, Jr. BettyWallaceRobinett, 1972 \ No newline at end of file +比如,s+j 可能会被读成 ʃz+j 可能会被读成 ʒ。再比如,*Miss you so much.* mɪ ʃu səʊ mʌʧ.;*It was your job.* ɪt wɒ ʒʊr ʤɒb. + +请注意,这两组是**可能**,并非一定,并非所有英文母语使用者都如此发音。 + +另外一个细节是,k/g 之前的 n,可能会被同化为 ŋ: + +## 4.4.2.4. 击穿(dropping) + +“辅音 + 辅音” 的组合中,如果第二个辅音是 h 的话,它常常被击穿(*dropping*),因为 h 原本就是很轻的音,发音时声带并不震动,所以总是自然而然地被前后发音相对更为响亮的声音所掩盖。 + +比如,*Was he hurt?* 三个单词分开读,应该是 wɒz hi həːt 在连贯的语音中,会被读成 wɒzi həːt —— 听不到 h,它被击穿了。 + +很多美国人在 t 这个音上还有另外一个特殊的习惯,t 跟在 n 之后的时候,美国人说话的方式会让我们听不到那个 t,也就是说,t 也可能被击穿。比如,他们说 *interview* 的时候你听到的可能是 ˈɪnəˌvju,没有 t。 + +另外,ð 也可能被击穿,基本只发生在 *them* 这个常用词上。比如,*let them* let ðəm, 变成了 let-əm,又由于 ð 被击穿了之后,t 等于被夹在了两个元音之间,于是会变成浊化的弹舌音 ,于是,说出来的或者听到的是 let̬əm…… 所以,在快速的自然语流中 *let him* 和 *let them* 实际上几乎没有区别,需要通过上下文确定究竟是 *him* 还是 *them*。 + +## 4.4.2.5 其它(others) + +值得一提的是,m/n + f/v 的情况。词汇之内我们看过 *comfort* ˈkʌmfɚt 和 *conversation* ˌkɑːnvɚˈseɪʃən 的例子([2.2.13](2.2.13-mnŋ))。这种情况在意群之内也经常会遇到,比如,*stem from*, 只能读成 sten frəm…… + +## 4.4.3. 元音 + 元音(Vowel + Vowel) + +“元音 + 元音” 的组合之中,会出现**加音**(*intrusion*)。 + +前一个元音以 ɪ/i/iː 结尾,会出现加音 ʲ: + +> - *I am* - ˈaɪ ˈæmˈaɪʲæm +> - *He is* - ˈhiː ˈɪzˈhiːʲɪz +> - *She is* - ˈʃiː ˈɪzˈʃiːʲɪz +> - *They are* - ˈðeɪ ˈɑːrˈðeɪʲɑːr + +注意:一些以 i 结尾的动词,使用进行时态的时候,末尾会加上 *ing*,即,ɪŋ。比如,*study* ˈstʌdi 的现在分词形式是 *studying* ˈstʌdi.ɪŋ —— 这里会出现加音 ʲ,即最后一个音节变成 jɪŋ…… 可是,在自然读音中,它更接近 jəŋ,所以,*studying* 的读音,词典里标注的当然还是 ˈstʌdiɪŋ,但,读出来的更接近 ˈstʌdiʲəŋ。 + +再比如: + +> *applying* *carrying* *crying* +> +> *denying* *qulifying* *replying* +> +> *satisfying* *specifying* *spying* + +前一个音节以 ʊ 结尾,比如 ʊ/uː/aʊ/oʊ,会出现加音 ʷ: + +> - *Go away* - ˈɡoʊ əˈweɪˈɡoʊʷəˈweɪ +> - *Do all* - ˈduː ˈɔːlˈduːʷɔːl +> - *Do it* - ˈduː ˈɪtˈduːʷɪt +> - *Throw it* - ˈθroʊ ˈɪtˈθroʊʷɪt + + +[^1]: This audio clip is extracted from the Audible edition of Knowledge and Decisions by Thomas Sowell. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/4.5-sentences.md b/1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/4.5-sentences.md index e69de29b..f69c62aa 100644 --- a/1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/4.5-sentences.md +++ b/1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/4.5-sentences.md @@ -0,0 +1,133 @@ +# 4.5. 句子 + +一句话由一个或者多个词汇构成 —— 当一句话由多个词汇构成的时候,有个重要的现象: + +> * 有些词会被**强读**(***accented** form*) +> * 有些词会被**弱读**(***weak** form*) + +即,不是每个词都是以同样的方式读出来的。 + +仔细听听以下例句: + +> **TEXT**: +> * The art of focus in our whirlwind existence can sometimes feel like searching for a needle in a haystack. +> * The ðɪ art ˈɑːrt of ɒv focus ˈfoʊkəs in ɪn our ˌaʊɚ whirlwind ˈwɝːlwɪnd existence ˈɪɡzɪstəns can kæn sometimes ˈsʌmtaɪmz feel ˈfiːl like ˈlaɪk searching ˈsɝːtʃɪŋ for fɔːr a ə needle ˈniːdəl in ɪn a ə haystack ˈheɪstæk +> +> **AUDIO**: +> * 逐字朗读版本 +> * 自然连贯版本 +> * 弱读的词汇:The art *of* focus *in* *our* whirlwind existence *can* sometimes feel *like* searching *for* a needle *in* a haystack. +> * 相对强读的词汇:The **art** of **focus** in our **whirlwind** existence can **sometimes** **feel** like **searching** for a **needle** in a **haystack**. + +这是一上来就需要调整(或者纠正)的习惯: + +> **不能像词典一样读句子里的每一个单词**。 + +## 4.5.1. 弱读词汇 + +首先要学会的是,把一些 “虚词” —— 根据情况,比如助动词、系动词、介词、连词、冠词、代词等等 —— 弱读。 + +比如,在以上的例句中,*of* 不是 ɒv 而是 əv, əf, ə 甚至 ɤ,*in* 不是带着重音的 ˈɪn 而是很轻的 ɪn, ən, *our* 不是 ˌaʊɚ 而是 ɑr,*can* 不是 kæn 而是 kən,*like* laɪk 中的双元音 读得很短,*for* 不是 fɔːr 而是 …… + +以下是其中最常见的强读式、弱读式对照列表。 + +> [!Note] +> 这个列表不能当作**硬规则**使用,不是所有的虚词都必须被弱读;也不是所有的实词都必须被强读 —— 根据情况,这些词在自然语流中也有被强读的时候。 + +> * a: ə +> * am: æməm, m +> * an: ænən, n +> * and: ændənd, nd, ən, n +> * any: 'enini +> * are: /ɑ/:ə +> * as: æsəz +> * at: ætət +> * but: bʌtbət +> * can: kænkən, kn, kŋ +> * could: kudkəd, kd +> * do: duːdu, də, d +> * does: dʌzdəz +> * for: fɔːfə, f +> * from: frɔmfrəm, frm +> * had: hædhəd, əd, d +> * has: hæzhəz, əz +> * have: hævhəv, həf, əv, əf +> * he: hiːhi, iː, i +> * her: həːhə, əː, ə +> * him: himim +> * his: hiziz +> * I: aiaː, ə +> * is: izs, z +> * many: 'menimni +> * me: miːmi +> * must: mʌstməst, məs +> * my: maimi +> * of: əvəv, v, f, ə +> * our: ɑʊɚ/ɑrɑ/ +> * shall: ʃælʃəl, ʃl +> * she: ʃiːʃi +> * should: ʃudʃəd, ʃd, ʃt +> * so: səʊ +> * some: sʌmsəm, sm +> * such: sʌʧsəʧ +> * than: ðænðən, ðn +> * that: ðætðət +> * the: /ði/:ði, ðə +> * them: ðemðəm, ðm, əm, m +> * then: ðenðən +> * to: tuːtu, tə, t +> * us: usəs +> * was: wɔzwəz, wə +> * we: wiːwi +> * were: wəː +> * when: wenwən +> * will: wɪl/əl, l/ +> * would: wuːdwəd, əd +> * you: juːju, jə + +## 4.5.2. 强读词汇 + +事实上,在自然语流中,讲话者经常调整强读(强调)的词汇,用来表达不同的含义。试比较以下同一个句子的 4 个版本[^1],在不同的版本里,被强读的词汇不同: + +> * **Marianna** made the **marmalade**. +> * **Marianna** made the marmalade. +> * **Marianna** **made** the **marmalade**. +> * Marianna made the **marmalade**? + +拿第 1 个版本为例,请参照以下图示: + +![nuclear-accented-words](/images/nuclear-accented-words.svg) + +同样一个句子,**强调**不同的**词**可能表达不同的含义[^2]: + +> * Will **you** drive to the office tommorrow? (rather than someone else) +> * Will you **drive** to the office tommorrow? (rather than going some other way) +> * Will you drive **to** the office tommorrow? (rather than from the office) +> * Will you drive to the **office** tommorrow? (rather than somewhere else) +> * Will you drive to the office **tommorrow**? (rather than some other day) + +被**强读**的词汇之中,重音音节往往带着**声调** —— 升、降、平、降升。并且,少数重音音节会有被拔高的**音高**。这些都是自然语流的韵律中格外重要的组成部分,也是跟读模仿练习时的重点之一。 + +## 4.5.3. 强弱带来的变化 + +如果一个音节是重音或被**强读**,那么这个单词中的: + +> * 长元音会被读的很清楚,并且足够长,甚至显得更长一些; +> * 双元音会被读的很饱满,并且显得很有弹性; +> * 落在重音上的短元音都会显得更长一些; +> * 重音所在的音节可能带着不同的声调(平调、升调、降调、降升)…… +> * 重音所在的音节可能带着更高的音高(往往是 “高”、“中”、“低” 中的 “高”)…… + +如果一个音节被**弱读**,那么这个单词中的: + +> * 长元音会变得短一些(几乎与短元音的长度相当); +> * 重音音节会变得与非重音音节一样轻; +> * 很多元音都会发生变化,向 *schwa* ə靠拢; +> * 很多与辅音相关的停顿会被直接省略; +> * 清辅音 stkf 之后的元音 ə 可能会直接被省略掉; +> * 整个单词所处的音高往往是 “高”、“中”、“低” 之中的 “低”,最多是 “中”…… + +其实,哪怕在单独读某一个单词的时候,其中元音的长短都会受到重音重读的影响。比如,*city* 这个单词,重音在第一个音节上,而两处的元音是一样的:ˈsɪ-t̬ɪ;但是只要你把第一个音节读得足够重,自然而然就能感觉到**第一个音节**只能比**第二个音节**更长。 + +[^1] 这个例子来自于 [Macquarie University](https://www.mq.edu.au/about/about-the-university/our-faculties/medicine-and-health-sciences/departments-and-centres/department-of-linguistics/our-research/phonetics-and-phonology/speech/phonetics-and-phonology/Intonation-tobi-introduction) +[^2] 这个例子来自于 *Manual of American English Pronunciation*, 4th edition, by Clifford H. Prator, Jr. BettyWallaceRobinett, 1972 \ No newline at end of file