# Drafts

辅音 `t` 在美式英语中有个弹舌音变体，`t̬`，例如，*cutting* `/ˈkʌt̬ɪŋ/`。

The consonant `t` has a flapping variant, `t̬`, as in the word *cutting*, pronounced `/ˈkʌt̬ɪŋ/`.

辅音 `l` 是音节辅音（[2.2.14](2.2.14-lr)），有时会在之前自然附带一个 `ə` 音，可能被标注为 `əl`、`ᵊl`（上标式 `ə`） 或者 `l̩`（注意 `l` 下的那根小竖线）。

The consonant `l` is a syllabic consonant ([2.2.14](2.2.14-lr)), which sometimes naturally comes with an `ə` sound before it. This may be annotated as `əl`, `ᵊl` (with a superscript `ə`), or `l̩` (note the small vertical line underneath the `l`).

6 个基础元音中，`ə` 和 `ɪ` 有相对更多的变体（*allophone*）：
In the 6 basic vowels, `ə` and `ɪ` have relatively more variants, or *allophones*:

* `ɪ`：
  * 除了长元音版本 `iː` 之外，还有一个半长版本 `i`，例如 *happy* `/ˈhæpi/`[^1]；
  * In addition to the long vowel version `i`ː, there's also a semi-long version `i`, as in *happy* `/ˈhæpi/`.
* `ə`：
  * 长元音版本 `əː` 在 CEPD[^2] 中被标注为 `ɜː`，例如 *bird* `/bɜːd/` (UK)
  * The long vowel version `əː` is annotated as `ɜː` in the CEPD[^2], like in *bird* `/bɜːd/` (UK).
  * 儿化的短元音 `ə` 被标注为 `ɚ`，例如 *mother* `/ˈmʌðɚ/`；
  * The rhotacized short vowel `ə` is annotated as `ɚ`, as in *mother* pronounced `/ˈmʌðɚ/`.
  * 儿化的长元音 `əː` 被标注为 `ɝː` 例如 *bird* `/bɝːd/` (US)
  * The rhotacized long vowel `əː` is annotated as `ɝː`, like in *bird* pronounced `/bɝːd/` (US).

英式英语中的 `eə`、`ɪə`、`ʊə`，在美式英语中的发音末尾都有儿化音，因此被标注为：`er`、`ɪr`、`ʊr`。

The sounds represented by `eə`, `ɪə`, and `ʊə` in British English are rhotacized in American English, which is why they are notated as: `er`, `ɪr`, `ʊr`.

另外，英式英语中还有两个三元音: `aɪə` 比如，*fire* `/faɪə/`；*hour* `/aʊə/`。在美式英语中，这两个三元音被简化为两个双元音的更为明显的儿化音，`aɪə` → `aɪr`，比如，*fire* `/faɪr/`, *hour* `/aʊr/`。

Furthermore, in British English, there are two triphthongs: `aɪə` as in *fire* pronounced `/faɪə/` and `aʊə` as in *hour* pronounced `/aʊə/`. In American English, these two triphthongs simplify into more apparent rhotacized diphthongs, `aɪə` → `aɪr`, for example, *fire* pronounced `/faɪr/`, and *hour* pronounced `/aʊr/`.

[^1]: The middle dot `` in `/ˈhæpi/` is an annotation of syllable division. A dot `.` is used in CEPD, but for clearer html rendering, we use a raised one here.
[^2]: CEPD, Cambridge English Pronunciation Dictionary, https://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.html.



比较幸运的是，大多数的音标标注差异集中在**元音**标记上，尤其是美式英语的元音 —— 所以也不算是太难掌握。

Luckily, the majority of phonetic notation differences are concentrated in *vowel* markings, especially American vowels, which makes it somewhat easier to master.

关于美式发音的音标标注，可以大致总结为以下几点：

Here are some key points to take note of when it comes to phonetic representation of American English:

> - 短元音 `ʌ` 变得与 `ə` 非常接近，甚至常常直接被 `ə` 替代。比如，*but* `/bʌt/` 可能直接被标注为 `/bət/`。
> - The short vowel `ʌ` often sounds very similar to `ə` and is frequently replaced by it in transcription. For example, *but* `/bʌt/` would be transcribed as `/bət/`.
> - 长短元音不统一使用 `ː` 区分，而是`ə/ɑ`、`ə/ɜ`、`ɚ/ɝ`、 `e/æ`、`ɪ/i`、`ʊ/u`、`ɒ/ɔ`。
> - Long and short vowels are differentiated not by using `ː`, but by pairs such as `ə/ɑ`, `ə/ɜ`, `ɚ/ɝ`, `e/æ`, `ɪ/i`, `ʊ/u`, `ɒ/ɔ`.
> - 短元音 `e` 有时用 `ɛ` 标注。
> - The short vowel `e` is sometimes transcribed as `ɛ`.
> - 短元音 `ə` ，由于经常附带着 `ʳ` 音，常常被标注为 `ɚ`；不带有 `ʳ` 音的时候，常常被标注为 `ɜ`。
> - The short vowel `ə`, often accompanied by the rhotic `ʳ`, is commonly transcribed as `ɚ`. When the rhotic sound is absent, `ə` is often transcribed as `ɜ`.
> - 长元音 `əː`，同样由于经常附带着 `ʳ` 音，常常被标注为 `ɝ`。
> - The long vowel `əː`, due to its frequent association with `ʳ`, is generally transcribed as `ɝ`.
> - `ə` 结尾的双元音，都用 `r`：`ɪə` ⭢ `ɪr`，`eə` ⭢ `er`，`ʊə` ⭢ `ʊr`。
> - Diphthongs ending in `ə` are represented with `r`: `ɪə` becomes `ɪr`, `eə` becomes `er`, `ʊə` becomes `ʊr`.
> - 非重音音节中的 `ɪ` 可能会被标注为 `ə`。
> - The `ɪ` in unstressed syllables may be transcribed as `ə`.
> - 短元音 `ɒ` 在美式发音中读作 `ɑ`，也如此标注，比如，*hot* `/hɑt/` —— `ɑ` 比 `ʌ/ə` 略长一些，比 `ɑr` 短。
> - The short vowel `ɒ` is pronounced as `ɑ` in American English and is transcribed as such. For example, *hot* is transcribed as `/hɑt/`. `ɑ` is slightly longer than `ʌ/ə` but shorter than `ɑr`.
> - `t` 的弹舌音用 `t̬` 标注。
> - The flapping `t` sound in American English is represented by `t̬`.

### `ʌ`

*but* `/bʌt/`, *chum* `/tʃʌm/`, *cut* `/kʌt/`, *drum* `/drʌm/`, *duck* `/dʌk/`, *fun* `/fʌn/`, *gun* `/ɡʌn/`, *hut* `/hʌt/`, *jump* `/dʒʌmp/`, *luck* `/lʌk/`, *mud* `/mʌd/`, *nut* `/nʌt/`, *pup* `/pʌp/`, *run* `/rʌn/`, *shut* `/ʃʌt/`, *sun* `/sʌn/`, *thug* `/θʌɡ/`, *thus* `/ðʌs/`, *truck* `/trʌk/`, *tut* `/tʌt/`, *vulgar* `/ˈvʌlɡɚ/`, *won* `/wʌn/`, *yum*  `/jʌm/`


### `e`

*bet* `/bet/`, *check* `/tʃek/`, *desk* `/desk/`, *dress* `/dres/`, *fed* `/fed/`, *get* `/ɡet/`, *hen* `/hen/`, *jet* `/dʒet/`, *kept* `/kept/`, *let* `/let/`, *met* `/met/`, *net* `/net/`, *pet* `/pet/`, *red* `/red/`, *set* `/set/`, *shed* `/ʃed/`, *test* `/test/`, *theft* `/θeft/`, *trek* `/trek/`, *vet* `/vet/`, *wet* `/wet/`, *yet* `/jet/`, *zed* `/zed/`

### `ə`

*ago* `/əˈɡoʊ/`, *button* `/ˈbʌt̬ən/`, *develop* `/dɪˈveləp/`, *dramatic* `/drəˈmæt̬ɪk/`, *expression* `/ɪkˈspreʃən/`, *onion* `/ˈʌnjən/`, *realize* `/ˈriːəlaɪz/`, *standard* `/ˈstændɚd/`, *system* `/ˈsɪstəm/`, *telegram* `/ˈteləɡræm/`

注意：没有儿化的 `ə` 在美式英语中，被称作 *schwa*，非重读央元音 —— 即，只出现在非重读音节中。

### `ɚ`

*danger* `/ˈdeɪndʒɚ/`, *freezer* `/ˈfriːzɚ/`, *harder* `/hɑːrdɚ/`, *larger* `/lɑːrdʒɚ/`, *paper* `/ˈpeɪpɚ/`, *server* `/ˈsɝːvɚ/`, *teacher* `/ˈtiːtʃɚ/`, *water* `/ˈwɑːt̬ɚ/`, *worker* `/ˈwɝːkɚ/`

注意：儿化的短元音 `ɚ` 只出现在非重读音节中。

### `ɪ`

*bit* `/bɪt/`, *chip* `/tʃɪp/`, *did* `/dɪd/`, *drill* `/drɪl/`, *gig* `/ɡɪɡ/`, *gin* `/dʒɪn/`, *his* `/hɪz/`, *if* `/ɪf/`, *kick* `/kɪk/`, *lip* `/lɪp/`, *milk* `/mɪlk/`, *nil* `/nɪl/`, *pick* `/pɪk/`, *rip* `/rɪp/`, *ship* `/ʃɪp/`, *sit* `/sɪt/`, *thick* `/θɪk/`, *this* `/ðɪs/`, *tip* `/tɪp/`, *trick* `/trɪk/`, *vivid* `/ˈvɪvɪd/`, *wit* `/wɪ/`, *zip* `/zɪp/`

### `ʊ`

*book* `/bʊk/`, *cook* `/kʊk/`, *foot* `/fʊt/`, *good* `/ɡʊd/`, *put* `/pʊt/`, *should* `/ʃʊd/`, *wood* `/wʊd/`

### `æ`

*add* `/æd/`, *bad* `/bæd/`, *cat* `/kæt/`, *chat* `/tʃæt/`, *dad* `/dæd/`, *dad* `/dæd/`, *drag* `/dræɡ/`, *jack* `/dʒæk/`, *fat* `/fæt/`, *gag* `/ɡæɡ/`, *has* `/hæz/`, *lab* `/læb/`, *mad* `/mæd/`, *nap* `/næp/`, *pad* `/pæd/`, *rat* `/ræt/`, *shall* `/ʃæl/`, *task* `/tæsk/`, *thank* `/θæŋk/`, *that* `/ðæt/`, *trash* `/træʃ/`, *vast* `/væst/`, *wag* `/wæɡ/`, *zag* `/zæɡ/`