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<HTML>
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<TITLE>as(9)</TITLE>
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<BODY>
<H1>as(9)</H1>
<HR>
<PRE>
<STRONG>Command:</STRONG> <STRONG>as</STRONG> <STRONG>-</STRONG> <STRONG>assembler</STRONG>
<STRONG>AS</STRONG>--<STRONG>--ASSEMBLER</STRONG> <STRONG>[IBM]</STRONG>
This document describes the language accepted by the 80386
assembler that is part of the Amsterdam Compiler Kit. Note that only
the syntax is described, only a few 386 instructions are shown as
examples.
<STRONG>Tokens,</STRONG> <STRONG>Numbers,</STRONG> <STRONG>Character</STRONG> <STRONG>Constants,</STRONG> <STRONG>and</STRONG> <STRONG>Strings</STRONG>
The syntax of numbers is the same as in C. The constants 32, 040,
and 0x20 all represent the same number, but are written in decimal,
octal, and hex, respectively. The rules for character constants and
strings are also the same as in C. For example, 'a' is a character
constant. A typical string is "string". Expressions may be formed with
C operators, but must use [ and ] for parentheses. (Normal parentheses
are claimed by the operand syntax.)
<STRONG>Symbols</STRONG>
Symbols contain letters and digits, as well as three special
characters: dot, tilde, and underscore. The first character may not be
a digit or tilde.
The names of the 80386 registers are reserved. These are:
al, bl, cl, dl
ah, bh, ch, dh
ax, bx, cx, dx, eax, ebx, ecx, edx
si, di, bp, sp, esi, edi, ebp, esp
cs, ds, ss, es, fs, gs
The xx and exx variants of the eight general registers are treated as
synonyms by the assembler. Normally "ax" is the 16-bit low half of the
32-bit "eax" register. The assembler determines if a 16 or 32 bit
operation is meant solely by looking at the instruction or the
instruction prefixes. It is however best to use the proper registers
when writing assembly to not confuse those who read the code.
The last group of 6 segment registers are used for selector + offset
mode addressing, in which the effective address is at a given offset in
one of the 6 segments.
Names of instructions and pseudo-ops are not reserved. Alphabetic
characters in opcodes and pseudo-ops must be in lower case.
<STRONG>Separators</STRONG>
Commas, blanks, and tabs are separators and can be interspersed
freely between tokens, but not within tokens. Commas are only legal
between operands.
<STRONG>Comments</STRONG>
The comment character is '!'. The rest of the line is ignored.
<STRONG>Opcodes</STRONG>
The opcodes are listed below. Notes: (1) Different names for the
same instruction are separated by '/'. (2) Square brackets ([])
indicate that 0 or 1 of the enclosed characters can be included. (3)
Curly brackets ({}) work similarly, except that one of the enclosed
characters <EM>must</EM> be included. Thus square brackets indicate an option,
whereas curly brackets indicate that a choice must be made.
<STRONG>Data</STRONG> <STRONG>Transfer</STRONG>
mov[b] dest, source ! Move word/byte from source to dest
pop dest ! Pop stack
push source ! Push stack
xchg[b] op1, op2 ! Exchange word/byte
xlat ! Translate
o16 ! Operate on a 16 bit object instead of 32 bit
<STRONG>Input/Output</STRONG>
in[b] source ! Input from source I/O port
in[b] ! Input from DX I/O port
out[b] dest ! Output to dest I/O port
out[b] ! Output to DX I/O port
<STRONG>Address</STRONG> <STRONG>Object</STRONG>
lds reg,source ! Load reg and DS from source
les reg,source ! Load reg and ES from source
lea reg,source ! Load effect address of source to reg and DS
{cdsefg}seg ! Specify seg register for next instruction
a16 ! Use 16 bit addressing mode instead of 32 bit
<STRONG>Flag</STRONG> <STRONG>Transfer</STRONG>
lahf ! Load AH from flag register
popf ! Pop flags
pushf ! Push flags
sahf ! Store AH in flag register
<STRONG>Addition</STRONG>
aaa ! Adjust result of BCD addition
add[b] dest,source ! Add
adc[b] dest,source ! Add with carry
daa ! Decimal Adjust after addition
inc[b] dest ! Increment by 1
<STRONG>Subtraction</STRONG>
aas ! Adjust result of BCD subtraction
sub[b] dest,source ! Subtract
sbb[b] dest,source ! Subtract with borrow from dest
das ! Decimal adjust after subtraction
dec[b] dest ! Decrement by one
neg[b] dest ! Negate
cmp[b] dest,source ! Compare
<STRONG>Multiplication</STRONG>
aam ! Adjust result of BCD multiply
imul[b] source ! Signed multiply
mul[b] source ! Unsigned multiply
<STRONG>Division</STRONG>
aad ! Adjust AX for BCD division
o16 cbw ! Sign extend AL into AH
o16 cwd ! Sign extend AX into DX
cwde ! Sign extend AX into EAX
cdq ! Sign extend EAX into EDX
idiv[b] source ! Signed divide
div[b] source ! Unsigned divide
<STRONG>Logical</STRONG>
and[b] dest,source ! Logical and
not[b] dest ! Logical not
or[b] dest,source ! Logical inclusive or
test[b] dest,source ! Logical test
xor[b] dest,source ! Logical exclusive or
<STRONG>Shift</STRONG>
sal[b]/shl[b] dest,CL ! Shift logical left
sar[b] dest,CL ! Shift arithmetic right
shr[b] dest,CL ! Shift logical right
<STRONG>Rotate</STRONG>
rcl[b] dest,CL ! Rotate left, with carry
rcr[b] dest,CL ! Rotate right, with carry
rol[b] dest,CL ! Rotate left
ror[b] dest,CL ! Rotate right
<STRONG>String</STRONG> <STRONG>Manipulation</STRONG>
cmps[b] ! Compare string element ds:esi with es:edi
lods[b] ! Load from ds:esi into AL, AX, or EAX
movs[b] ! Move from ds:esi to es:edi
rep ! Repeat next instruction until ECX=0
repe/repz ! Repeat next instruction until ECX=0 and ZF=1
repne/repnz ! Repeat next instruction until ECX!=0 and ZF=0
scas[b] ! Compare ds:esi with AL/AX/EAX
stos[b] ! Store AL/AX/EAX in es:edi
<STRONG>Control</STRONG> <STRONG>Transfer</STRONG>
<EM>As</EM> accepts a number of special jump opcodes that can assemble to
instructions with either a byte displacement, which can only reach to
targets within -126 to +129 bytes of the branch, or an instruction with
a 32-bit displacement. The assembler automatically chooses a byte or
word displacement instruction.
The English translation of the opcodes should be obvious, with
'l(ess)' and 'g(reater)' for signed comparisions, and 'b(elow)' and
'a(bove)*(CQ for unsigned comparisions. There are lots of synonyms to
allow you to write "jump if not that" instead of "jump if this".
The 'call', 'jmp', and 'ret' instructions can be either
intrasegment or intersegment. The intersegment versions are indicated
with the suffix 'f'.
<STRONG>Unconditional</STRONG>
jmp[f] dest ! jump to dest (8 or 32-bit displacement)
call[f] dest ! call procedure
ret[f] ! return from procedure
<STRONG>Conditional</STRONG>
ja/jnbe ! if above/not below or equal (unsigned)
jae/jnb/jnc ! if above or equal/not below/not carry (uns.)
jb/jnae/jc ! if not above nor equal/below/carry (unsigned)
jbe/jna ! if below or equal/not above (unsigned)
jg/jnle ! if greater/not less nor equal (signed)
jge/jnl ! if greater or equal/not less (signed)
jl/jnqe ! if less/not greater nor equal (signed)
jle/jgl ! if less or equal/not greater (signed)
je/jz ! if equal/zero
jne/jnz ! if not equal/not zero
jno ! if overflow not set
jo ! if overflow set
jnp/jpo ! if parity not set/parity odd
jp/jpe ! if parity set/parity even
jns ! if sign not set
js ! if sign set
<STRONG>Iteration</STRONG> <STRONG>Control</STRONG>
jcxz dest ! jump if ECX = 0
loop dest ! Decrement ECX and jump if CX != 0
loope/loopz dest ! Decrement ECX and jump if ECX = 0 and ZF = 1
loopne/loopnz dest ! Decrement ECX and jump if ECX != 0 and ZF = 0
<STRONG>Interrupt</STRONG>
int n ! Software interrupt n
into ! Interrupt if overflow set
iretd ! Return from interrupt
<STRONG>Flag</STRONG> <STRONG>Operations</STRONG>
clc ! Clear carry flag
cld ! Clear direction flag
cli ! Clear interrupt enable flag
cmc ! Complement carry flag
stc ! Set carry flag
std ! Set direction flag
sti ! Set interrupt enable flag
<STRONG>Location</STRONG> <STRONG>Counter</STRONG>
The special symbol '.' is the location counter and its value is the
address of the first byte of the instruction in which the symbol appears
and can be used in expressions.
<STRONG>Segments</STRONG>
There are four different assembly segments: text, rom, data and
bss. Segments are declared and selected by the .<EM>sect</EM> pseudo-op. It is
customary to declare all segments at the top of an assembly file like
this:
.sect .text; .sect .rom; .sect .data; .sect .bss
The assembler accepts up to 16 different segments, but MINIX expects
only four to be used. Anything can in principle be assembled into any
segment, but the MINIX bss segment may only contain uninitialized data.
Note that the '.' symbol refers to the location in the current segment.
<STRONG>Labels</STRONG>
There are two types: name and numeric. Name labels consist of a
name followed by a colon (:).
The numeric labels are single digits. The nearest 0: label may be
referenced as 0f in the forward direction, or 0b backwards.
<STRONG>Statement</STRONG> <STRONG>Syntax</STRONG>
Each line consists of a single statement. Blank or comment lines
are allowed.
<STRONG>Instruction</STRONG> <STRONG>Statements</STRONG>
The most general form of an instruction is
label: opcode operand1, operand2 ! comment
<STRONG>Expression</STRONG> <STRONG>Semantics</STRONG>
The following operators can be used: + - * / &amp; | ^ ~ &lt;&lt; (shift
left) &gt;&gt; (shift right) - (unary minus). 32-bit integer arithmetic is
used. Division produces a truncated quotient.
<STRONG>Addressing</STRONG> <STRONG>Modes</STRONG>
Below is a list of the addressing modes supported. Each one is
followed by an example.
constant mov eax, 123456
direct access mov eax, (counter)
register mov eax, esi
indirect mov eax, (esi)
base + disp. mov eax, 6(ebp)
scaled index mov eax, (4*esi)
base + index mov eax, (ebp)(2*esi)
base + index + disp. mov eax, 10(edi)(1*esi)
Any of the constants or symbols may be replacement by expressions.
Direct access, constants and displacements may be any type of
expression. A scaled index with scale 1 may be written without the
'1*'.
<STRONG>Call</STRONG> <STRONG>and</STRONG> <STRONG>Jmp</STRONG>
The 'call' and 'jmp' instructions can be interpreted as a load into
the instruction pointer.
call _routine ! Direct, intrasegment
call (subloc) ! Indirect, intrasegment
call 6(ebp) ! Indirect, intrasegment
call ebx ! Direct, intrasegment
call (ebx) ! Indirect, intrasegment
callf (subloc) ! Indirect, intersegment
callf seg:offs ! Direct, intersegment
<STRONG>Symbol</STRONG> <STRONG>Assigment</STRONG>
Symbols can acquire values in one of two ways. Using a symbol as a
label sets it to '.' for the current segment with type relocatable.
Alternative, a symbol may be given a name via an assignment of the form
symbol = expression
in which the symbol is assigned the value and type of its arguments.
<STRONG>Storage</STRONG> <STRONG>Allocation</STRONG>
Space can be reserved for bytes, words, and longs using pseudo-ops.
They take one or more operands, and for each generate a value whose size
is a byte, word (2 bytes) or long (4 bytes). For example:
.data1 2, 6 ! allocate 2 bytes initialized to 2 and 6
.data2 3, 0x10 ! allocate 2 words initialized to 3 and 16
.data4 010 ! allocate a longword initialized to 8
.space 40 ! allocates 40 bytes of zeros
allocates 50 (decimal) bytes of storage, initializing the first two
bytes to 2 and 6, the next two words to 3 and 16, then one longword with
value 8 (010 octal), last 40 bytes of zeros.
<STRONG>String</STRONG> <STRONG>Allocation</STRONG>
The pseudo-ops .<EM>ascii</EM> and .<EM>asciz</EM> take one string argument and
generate the ASCII character codes for the letters in the string. The
latter automatically terminates the string with a null (0) byte. For
example,
.ascii "hello"
.asciz "world\n"
<STRONG>Alignment</STRONG>
Sometimes it is necessary to force the next item to begin at a
word, longword or even a 16 byte address boundary. The .<EM>align</EM> pseudo-op
zero or more null byte if the current location is a multiple of the
argument of .align.
<STRONG>Segment</STRONG> <STRONG>Control</STRONG>
Every item assembled goes in one of the four segments: text, rom,
data, or bss. By using the .<EM>sect</EM> pseudo-op with argument .<EM>text</EM>, .<EM>rom</EM>,
.<EM>data</EM> or .<EM>bss</EM>, the programmer can force the next items to go in a
particular segment.
<STRONG>External</STRONG> <STRONG>Names</STRONG>
A symbol can be given global scope by including it in a .<EM>define</EM>
pseudo-op. Multiple names may be listed, separate by commas. It must
be used to export symbols defined in the current program. Names not
defined in the current program are treated as "undefined external"
automatically, although it is customary to make this explicit with the
.<EM>extern</EM> pseudo-op.
<STRONG>Common</STRONG>
The .<EM>comm</EM> pseudo-op declares storage that can be common to more
than one module. There are two arguments: a name and an absolute
expression giving the size in bytes of the area named by the symbol. The
type of the symbol becomes external. The statement can appear in any
segment. If you think this has something to do with FORTRAN, you are
right.
<STRONG>Examples</STRONG>
In the kernel directory, there are several assembly code files that
are worth inspecting as examples. However, note that these files, are
designed to first be run through the C preprocessor. (The very first
character is a # to signal this.) Thus they contain numerous constructs
that are not pure assembler. For true assembler examples, compile any C
program provided with MINIX using the <STRONG>-S</STRONG> flag. This will result in an
assembly language file with a suffix with the same name as the C source
file, but ending with the .s suffix.
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<HEAD>
<TITLE>awk(9)</TITLE>
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<H1>awk(9)</H1>
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<PRE>
<STRONG>Command:</STRONG> <STRONG>awk</STRONG> <STRONG>-</STRONG> <STRONG>pattern</STRONG> <STRONG>matching</STRONG> <STRONG>language</STRONG>
<STRONG>Syntax:</STRONG> <STRONG>awk</STRONG> <EM>rules</EM> [<EM>file</EM>] ...
<STRONG>Flags:</STRONG> (none)
<STRONG>Examples:</STRONG> awk rules input # Process <EM>input</EM> according to <EM>rules</EM>
awk rules - &gt;out # Input from terminal, output to <EM>out</EM>
AWK is a programming language devised by Aho, Weinberger, and
Kernighan at Bell Labs (hence the name). <EM>Awk</EM> programs search files for
specific patterns and performs 'actions' for every occurrence of these
patterns. The patterns can be 'regular expressions' as used in the <EM>ed</EM>
editor. The actions are expressed using a subset of the C language.
The patterns and actions are usually placed in a 'rules' file whose
name must be the first argument in the command line, preceded by the
flag <STRONG>-f</STRONG>. Otherwise, the first argument on the command line is taken to
be a string containing the rules themselves. All other arguments are
taken to be the names of text files on which the rules are to be
applied, with <STRONG>-</STRONG> being the standard input. To take rules from the
standard input, use <STRONG>-f</STRONG> <STRONG>-</STRONG>.
The command:
<STRONG>awk</STRONG> <STRONG>rules</STRONG> <STRONG>prog.d*u</STRONG>
would read the patterns and actions rules from the file <EM>rules</EM> and apply
them to all the arguments.
The general format of a rules file is:
&lt;pattern&gt; { &lt;action&gt; } &lt;pattern&gt; { &lt;action&gt; } ...
There may be any number of these &lt;pattern&gt; { &lt;action&gt; } sequences in the
rules file. <EM>Awk</EM> reads a line of input from the current input file and
applies every &lt;pattern&gt; { &lt;action&gt; } in sequence to the line.
If the &lt;pattern&gt; corresponding to any { &lt;action&gt; } is missing, the
action is applied to every line of input. The default { &lt;action&gt; } is
to print the matched input line.
<STRONG>Patterns</STRONG>
The &lt;pattern&gt;s may consist of any valid C expression. If the
<pattern&gt; consists of two expressions separated by a comma, it is taken
to be a range and the &lt;action&gt; is performed on all lines of input that
match the range. &lt;pattern&gt;s may contain 'regular expressions' delimited
by an @ symbol. Regular expressions can be thought of as a generalized
'wildcard' string matching mechanism, similar to that used by many
operating systems to specify file names. Regular expressions may
contain any of the following characters:
x An ordinary character
\ The backslash quotes any character
^ A circumflex at the beginning of an expr matches the beginning
of a line.
$ A dollar-sign at the end of an expression matches the end of a
line.
. A period matches any single character except newline.
* An expression followed by an asterisk matches zero or more
occurrences of that expression: 'fo*' matches 'f', 'fo', 'foo',
'fooo', etc.
+ An expression followed by a plus sign matches one or more
occurrences of that expression: 'fo+' matches 'fo', 'foo',
'fooo', etc.
[] A string enclosed in square brackets matches any single
character in that string, but no others. If the first
character in the string is a circumflex, the expression matches
any character except newline and the characters in the string.
For example, '[xyz]' matches 'xx' and 'zyx', while '[^xyz]'
matches 'abc' but not 'axb'. A range of characters may be
specified by two characters separated by '-'.
<STRONG>Actions</STRONG>
Actions are expressed as a subset of the C language. All variables
are global and default to int's if not formally declared. Only char's
and int's and pointers and arrays of char and int are allowed. <EM>Awk</EM>
allows only decimal integer constants to be used----no hex (0xnn) or
octal (0nn). String and character constants may contain all of the
special C escapes (\n, \r, etc.).
<EM>Awk</EM> supports the 'if', 'else', 'while' and 'break' flow of control
constructs, which behave exactly as in C.
Also supported are the following unary and binary operators, listed
in order from highest to lowest precedence:
<STRONG>Operator</STRONG> <STRONG>Type</STRONG> <STRONG>Associativity</STRONG>
() [] unary left to right
! ~ ++ -- - * &amp; unary right to left
* / % binary left to right
+ - binary left to right
&lt;&lt; &gt;&gt; binary left to right
&lt; <= &gt; >= binary left to right
== != binary left to right
&amp; binary left to right
^ binary left to right
| binary left to right
&amp;&amp; binary left to right
|| binary left to right
= binary right to left
Comments are introduced by a '#' symbol and are terminated by the first
newline character. The standard '/*' and '*/' comment delimiters are
not supported and will result in a syntax error.
<STRONG>Fields</STRONG>
When <EM>awk</EM> reads a line from the current input file, the record is
automatically separated into 'fields.' A field is simply a string of
consecutive characters delimited by either the beginning or end of line,
or a 'field separator' character. Initially, the field separators are
the space and tab character. The special unary operator '$' is used to
reference one of the fields in the current input record (line). The
fields are numbered sequentially starting at 1. The expression '$0'
references the entire input line.
Similarly, the 'record separator' is used to determine the end of
an input 'line,' initially the newline character. The field and record
separators may be changed programatically by one of the actions and will
remain in effect until changed again.
Multiple (up to 10) field separators are allowed at a time, but
only one record separator.
Fields behave exactly like strings; and can be used in the same
context as a character array. These 'arrays' can be considered to have
been declared as:
char ($n)[ 128 ];
In other words, they are 128 bytes long. Notice that the parentheses
are necessary because the operators [] and $ associate from right to
left; without them, the statement would have parsed as:
char $(1[ 128 ]);
which is obviously ridiculous.
If the contents of one of these field arrays is altered, the '$0'
field will reflect this change. For example, this expression:
*$4 = 'A';
will change the first character of the fourth field to an upper- case
letter 'A'. Then, when the following input line:
120 PRINT "Name address Zip"
is processed, it would be printed as:
120 PRINT "Name Address Zip"
Fields may also be modified with the strcpy() function (see below). For
example, the expression:
strcpy( $4, "Addr." );
applied to the same line above would yield:
120 PRINT "Name Addr. Zip"
<STRONG>Predefined</STRONG> <STRONG>Variables</STRONG>
The following variables are pre-defined:
FS Field separator (see below).
RS Record separator (see below also).
NF Number of fields in current input record (line).
NR Number of records processed thus far.
FILENAME Name of current input file.
BEGIN A special &lt;pattern&gt; that matches the beginning of
input text.
END A special &lt;pattern&gt; that matches the end of input
text.
<EM>Awk</EM> also provides some useful built-in functions for string manipulation
and printing:
print(arg) Simple printing of strings only, terminated by '\n'.
printf(arg...) Exactly the printf() function from C.
getline() Reads the next record and returns 0 on end of file.
nextfile() Closes the current input file and begins processing
the next file
strlen(s) Returns the length of its string argument.
strcpy(s,t) Copies the string 't' to the string 's'.
strcmp(s,t) Compares the 's' to 't' and returns 0 if they match.
toupper(c) Returns its character argument converted to upper-
case.
tolower(c) Returns its character argument converted to lower-
case.
match(s,@re@) Compares the string 's' to the regular expression 're'
and returns the number of matches found (zero if
none).
<STRONG>Authors</STRONG>
<EM>Awk</EM> was written by Saeko Hirabauashi and Kouichi Hirabayashi.
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<H1>de(9)</H1>
<HR>
<PRE>
<STRONG>Command:</STRONG> <STRONG>de</STRONG> <STRONG>-</STRONG> <STRONG>disk</STRONG> <STRONG>editor</STRONG>
<STRONG>Syntax:</STRONG> <STRONG>de</STRONG> [<STRONG>-w</STRONG>] <EM>block</EM>_<EM>device</EM>
<STRONG>de</STRONG> <STRONG>-r</STRONG> <EM>file</EM>
<STRONG>Flags:</STRONG> <STRONG>-r</STRONG> Recover a file that has been removed
<STRONG>-w</STRONG> Enable writing, so device can be modified
<STRONG>Examples:</STRONG> de -r /usr/ast/prog.c # Undo the effects of: <EM>rm</EM>
/<EM>usr</EM>/<EM>ast</EM>/<EM>prog</EM>.<EM>c</EM>
de -w /dev/fd0 # Edit /<EM>dev</EM>/<EM>fd0</EM> for writing
The <EM>de</EM> program allows a system administrator to examine and modify
a MINIX file system device. Commands are available to move to any
address on the disk and display the disk block contents. This
information may be presented in one of three visual modes: as two-byte
words, as ASCII characters or as a bit map. The disk may be searched for
a string of characters. If the <STRONG>-w</STRONG> option is given, <EM>de</EM> will open the
device for writing and words may be modified. Without this flag,
writing is prohibited. Lost blocks and files can be recovered using a
variety of commands. The <STRONG>-r</STRONG> option supports automated recovery of files
removed by <EM>unlink</EM>.
<STRONG>Positioning</STRONG>
Disks are divided into blocks (also called 'zones') of 1024 bytes.
<EM>De</EM> keeps a current address on the disk as a block number and a byte
offset within the block. In some visual modes the offset is rounded off,
for example, in 'word' mode the offset must be even.
There are different types of blocks on a file system device,
including a super block, bit maps, i-nodes and data blocks. <EM>De</EM> knows
the type of the current block, but will allow most positioning commands
and visual modes to function anywhere on the disk.
The <EM>f</EM> command (or PGDN on the keypad) moves forward to the next
block, similarly <EM>b</EM> (PGUP) moves backwards one block. <EM>F</EM> (END) moves to
the last block and <EM>B</EM> (HOME) moves to the first block.
The arrow keys (or <EM>u</EM>, <EM>d</EM>, <EM>l</EM>, and <EM>r</EM>) change the current address by
small increments. The size of the increment depends on the current
display mode, as shown below. The various sizes suit each display and
pointers move on the screen to follow each press of an arrow key.
<STRONG>Mode</STRONG> <STRONG>Up</STRONG> <STRONG>Down</STRONG> <STRONG>Left</STRONG> <STRONG>Right</STRONG>
Word -2 +2 -32 +32
Block -64 +64 -1 +1
Map -256 +256 -4 +4
The <EM>g</EM> command allows movement to any specified block. Like all commands
that take arguments, a prompt and subsequent input are written to the
bottom line of the screen. Numerical entry may be decimal, octal or
hexadecimal, for example 234, -1, 070, 0xf3, -X3C.
While checking an i-node one may want to move to a block listed as
a zone of the file. The <EM>G</EM> command takes the contents at the current
address in the device as a block number and indirectly jumps to that
block.
The address may be set to the start of any i-node using the
command and supplying an i-node number. The <EM>I</EM> command maps a given file
name into an i-node address. The file must exist on the current device
and this device must be mounted.
<STRONG>The</STRONG> <STRONG>Display</STRONG>
The first line of the display contains the device name, the name of
the current output file (if one is open) and the current search string.
If <EM>de</EM> is being run with the <STRONG>-w</STRONG> option then the device name is flagged
with '(w).' If a string is too long to fit on the line it is marked with
'...'.
The second line contains the current block number, the total number
of blocks, and the type of the current block. The types are: boot,
super, i-node bit map, zone bit map, i-nodes and data block. If the
current address is within a data block then the string 'in use' is
displayed if the block corresponds to a set in the zone bit map.
The third line shows the offset in the current block. If the
current address is within either the i-node or zone bit maps then the i-
node or block number corresponding to the current bit is shown. If the
current address is within an i-node then the i-node number and 'in use'
status is displayed. If the address is within a bit map or i-node
block, but past the last usable entry, then the string 'padding' is
shown.
The rest of the screen is used to display data from the current
block. There are three visual display modes: 'word,' 'block,' and
'map.' The <EM>v</EM> command followed by <EM>w</EM>, <EM>b</EM>, or <EM>m</EM> sets the current display
mode.
In 'word' mode 16 words, of two bytes each, are shown in either
base 2, 8, 10 or 16. The current base is displayed to the far right of
the screen. It can be changed using the <EM>o</EM> command followed by either an
<EM>h</EM> (hexadecimal), <EM>d</EM> (decimal), <EM>o</EM> (octal) or <EM>b</EM> (binary).
<EM>De</EM> knows where i-nodes are, and will display the contents in a
readable format, including the <EM>rwx</EM> bits, the user name and the time
field. If the current page is at the beginning of the super block, or an
executable file or an <EM>ar</EM> archive, then <EM>de</EM> will also inform the user. In
all other cases the contents of the 16 words are shown to the right as
equivalent ASCII characters.
In 'block' mode a whole block of 1024 bytes is displayed as ASCII
characters, 64 columns by 16 lines. Control codes are shown as
highlighted characters. If the high order bit is set in any of the 1024
bytes then an 'MSB' flag is shown on the far right of the screen, but
these bytes are not individually marked.
In 'map' mode 2048 bits (256 bytes) are displayed from the top to
the bottom (32 bits) and from the left to the right of the screen. Bit
zero of a byte is towards the top of the screen. This visual mode is
generally used to observe the bit map blocks. The number of set bits
displayed is written on the far right of the screen.
<STRONG>Searching</STRONG>
A search for an ASCII string is initiated by the / command.
Control characters not used for other purposes may be entered in the
search string, for example CTRL-J is an end-of-line character. The
search is from the current position to the end of the current device.
Once a search string has been defined by a use of /, the next
search may be initiated with the <EM>n</EM> command, (a / followed immediately by
an ENTER is equivalent to an <EM>n</EM>).
Whenever a search is in progress <EM>de</EM> will append one . to the prompt
line for every 500 blocks searched. If the string is found between the
end of the file system and the actual end of the device, then the
current address is set to the end of the file system.
Some of the positioning commands push the current address and
visual mode in a stack before going to a new address. These commands
are <EM>B</EM>, <EM>F</EM>, <EM>g</EM>, <EM>G</EM>, <EM>i</EM>, <EM>I</EM>, <EM>n</EM>, <EM>x</EM> and /. The <EM>p</EM> (previous) command pops the last
address and visual mode from the stack. This stack is eight entries
deep.
<STRONG>Modifying</STRONG> <STRONG>the</STRONG> <STRONG>File</STRONG> <STRONG>System</STRONG>
The <EM>s</EM> command will prompt for a data word and store it at the
current address on the disk. This is used to change information that can
not be easily changed by any other means.
The data word is 16 bits wide, it may be entered in decimal, octal
or hexadecimal. Remember that the <STRONG>-w</STRONG> option must be specified for the <EM>s</EM>
command to operate. Be careful when modifying a mounted file system.
<STRONG>Recovering</STRONG> <STRONG>Files</STRONG>
Any block on the disk may be written to an output file. This is
used to recover blocks marked as free on the disk. A write command will
request a file name the first time it is used, on subsequent writes the
data is appended to the current output file.
The name of the current output file is changed using the <EM>c</EM> command.
This file should be on a different file system, to avoid overwriting an
i-node or block before it is recovered.
An ASCII block is usually recovered using the <EM>w</EM> command. All bytes
will have their most significant bit cleared before being written to the
output file. Bytes containing '\0' or '\177' are not copied. The <EM>W</EM>
command writes the current block (1024 bytes exactly) to the output
file.
When a file is deleted using <EM>unlink</EM> the i-node number in the
directory is zeroed, but before its removal, it is copied into the end
of the file name field. This allows the i-node of a deleted file to be
found by searching through a directory. The <EM>x</EM> command asks for the path
name of a lost file, extracts the old i-node number and changes the
current disk address to the start of the i-node.
Once an i-node is found, all of the freed blocks may be recovered
by checking the i-node zone fields, using 'G' to go to a block, writing
it back out using 'w', going back to the i-node with <EM>p</EM> and advancing to
the next block. This file extraction process is automated by using the <EM>X</EM>
command, which goes through the i-node, indirect and double indirect
blocks finding all the block pointers and recovering all the blocks of
the file.
The <EM>X</EM> command closes the current output file and asks for the name
of a new output file. All of the disk blocks must be marked as free, if
they are not the command stops and the file must be recovered manually.
When extracting lost blocks <EM>de</EM> will maintain 'holes' in the file.
Thus, a recovered sparse file does not allocate unused blocks and will
keep its efficient storage scheme. This property of the <EM>X</EM> command may
be used to move a sparse file from one device to another.
Automatic recovery may be initiated by the <STRONG>-r</STRONG> option on the command
line. Also specified is the path name of a file just removed by <EM>unlink</EM>.
<EM>De</EM> determines which mounted file system device held the file and opens
it for reading. The lost i-node is found and the file extracted by
automatically performing an <EM>x</EM> and an <EM>X</EM> command.
The recovered file will be written to /<EM>tmp</EM>. <EM>De</EM> will refuse to
automatically recover a file on the same file system as /<EM>tmp</EM>. The lost
file must have belonged to the user. If automatic recovery will not
complete, then manual recovery may be performed.
<STRONG>Miscellaneous</STRONG>
The user can terminate a session with <EM>de</EM> by typing <EM>q</EM>, CTRL-D, or
the key associated with SIGQUIT.
The <EM>m</EM> command invokes the MINIX <EM>sh</EM> shell as a subprocess.
For help while using <EM>de</EM> use <EM>h</EM>.
<STRONG>Command</STRONG> <STRONG>Summary</STRONG>
PGUP b Back one block
PGDN f Forward one block
HOME B Goto first block
END F Goto last block
UP u Move back 2/64/256 bytes
DOWN d Move forward 2/64/256 bytes
LEFT l Move back 32/1/4 bytes
RIGHT r Move forward 32/1/4 bytes
g Goto specified block
G Goto block indirectly
i Goto specified i-node
I Filename to i-node
/ Search
n Next occurrence
p Previous address
h Help
EOF q Quit
m MINIX shell
v Visual mode (w b m)
o Output base (h d o b)
c Change file name
w Write ASCII block
W Write block exactly
x Extract lost directory entry
X Extract lost file blocks
s Store word
NOTES: When entering a line in response to a prompt from <EM>de</EM> there are a
couple of editing characters available. The previous character may be
erased by typing CTRL-H and the whole line may be erased by typing CTRL-
U. ENTER terminates the input. If DELETE or a non-ASCII character is
typed then the command requesting the input is aborted.
The commands <EM>G</EM>, <EM>s</EM> and <EM>X</EM> will only function if the current visual
display mode is 'word.' The commands <EM>i</EM>, <EM>I</EM> and <EM>x</EM> change the mode to
'word' on completion. The commands <EM>G</EM> and / change the mode to 'block'.
These restrictions and automatic mode conversions are intended to aid
the user.
The 'map' mode uses special graphic characters, and only functions
if the user is at the console.
<EM>De</EM> generates warnings for illegal user input or if erroneous data
is found on the disk, for example a corrupted magic number. Warnings
appear in the middle of the screen for two seconds, then the current
page is redrawn. Some minor errors, for example, setting an unknown
visual mode, simply ring the bell. Major errors, for example I/O
problems on the file system device cause an immediate exit from <EM>de</EM>.
The i-node and zone bit maps are read from the device when <EM>de</EM>
starts up. These determine whether 'in use' or 'not in use' is displayed
in the status field at the top of the screen. The bit maps are not re-
read while using <EM>de</EM> and will become out-of-date if observing a mounted
file system.
<EM>De</EM> requires termcap definitions for 'cm' and 'cl'. Furthermore,
'so' and 'se' will also be used if available. The ANSI strings generated
by the keypad arrows are recognized, as well as any single character
codes defined by 'ku', 'kd', 'kl' and 'kr'.
<STRONG>Author</STRONG>
The <EM>de</EM> program was written by Terrence Holm.
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<H1>dis88(9)</H1>
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<PRE>
<STRONG>Command:</STRONG> <STRONG>dis88</STRONG> <STRONG>-</STRONG> <STRONG>disassembler</STRONG> <STRONG>[IBM]</STRONG>
<STRONG>Syntax:</STRONG> <STRONG>dis88</STRONG> [<STRONG>-o</STRONG>] <EM>infile</EM> [<EM>outfile</EM>]
<STRONG>Flags:</STRONG> <STRONG>-o</STRONG> List the object code along with the assembly code
<STRONG>Examples:</STRONG> dis88 a.out &gt;listing # Disassemble <EM>a</EM>.<EM>out</EM>
dis88 -o a.out listing # Ditto, but with object code
<EM>Dis88</EM> disassembles 8088 object code to the assembly language format
used by MINIX. It makes full use of symbol table information, supports
separate instruction and data space, and generates synthetic labels when
needed. It does not support 8087 mnemonics, symbolic data segment
references, or the ESC mnemonic.
The program is invoked by:
<STRONG>dis88</STRONG> <STRONG>[-o]</STRONG> <STRONG>infile</STRONG> <STRONG>[outfile]</STRONG>
The -o flag causes object code to be listed. If no outfile is given,
<EM>stdout</EM> is used.
The text segment of an object file is always padded to an even
address. In addition, if the file has split I/D space, the text segment
will be padded to a paragraph boundary (i.e., an address divisible by
16). Due to padding, the disassembler may produce a few spurious, but
harmless, instructions at the end of the text segment.
Because the information to which initialized data refers cannot
generally be inferred from context, the data segment is treated
literally. Byte values (in hexadecimal) are output, and long stretches
of null data are represented by appropriate .<EM>zerow</EM> pseudo-ops.
Disassembly of the bss segment, on the other hand, is quite
straightforward, because uninitialized data is all zero by definition.
No data is output in the bss segment, but symbolic labels are output as
appropriate.
The output of operands in symbolic form is complicated somewhat by
the existence of assembler symbolic constants and segment override
opcodes. Thus, the program's symbol lookup routine attempts to apply a
certain amount of intelligence when it is asked to find a symbol. If it
cannot match on a symbol of the preferred type, it may output a symbol
of some other type, depending on preassigned (and somewhat arbitrary)
rankings within each type. Finally, if all else fails, it will output a
string containing the address sought as a hex constant. For user
convenience, the targets of branches are also output, in comments, as
hexadecimal constants.
<STRONG>Error</STRONG> <STRONG>Messages</STRONG>
Various error messages may be generated as a result of problems
encountered during the disassembly. They are listed below
Cannot access input file - Input file cannot be opened or
read
Cannot open output file - Output file cannot be created
Input file not in object format - Bad magic number
Not an 8086/8088 object file - CPU ID of the file header is
incorrect
Reloc table overflow - Relocation table exceeds 1500
entries
Symbol table overflow - Symbol table exceeds 1500 entries
Lseek error - Input file corrupted (should never
happen)
Warning: no symbols - Symbol table is missing (use ast)
Cannot reopen input file - Input file was removed during
execution
<STRONG>Author</STRONG>
<EM>Dis88</EM> was written and copyrighted by G. M. Harding and is included
here by permission. It may be freely redistributed provided th
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<TITLE>indent(9)</TITLE>
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<BODY>
<H1>indent(9)</H1>
<HR>
<PRE>
<STRONG>Command:</STRONG> <STRONG>indent</STRONG> <STRONG>-</STRONG> <STRONG>reformat</STRONG> <STRONG>the</STRONG> <STRONG>layout</STRONG> <STRONG>of</STRONG> <STRONG>a</STRONG> <STRONG>program</STRONG>
<STRONG>Syntax:</STRONG> <STRONG>indent</STRONG> <EM>in</EM>_<EM>file</EM> [<EM>out</EM>_<EM>file</EM>] [<EM>options</EM>]
<STRONG>Flags:</STRONG> (many)
<STRONG>Examples:</STRONG> indent -br -c25 prog.c # Indent <EM>prog</EM>.<EM>c</EM>
indent -npcs prog.c newprog.c # Put output on <EM>newprog</EM>.<EM>c</EM>
<EM>Indent</EM> reads a C program in, rearranges the layout, and outputs a
new C program that will compile to the same executable binary as the
original one. The difference between the input and output is that the
output is in a standard layout determined by a large number of options.
For most of the options there are two choices, one that enables it and
one that disables it.
If <EM>indent</EM> is called with no file files, it operates as a filter.
If called with one file name, that file is reformatted and the result
replaces the original file. A backup is created, however, with the
suffix .<EM>BAK</EM>. If it is called with two file names, the first one is the
input file and the second one is the output file. Only one file can be
reformatted at a time (e.g., one cannot call <EM>indent</EM> with *.c as
argument; this is an error and will not work.).
<STRONG>Options</STRONG>
Many options are available. If you want to format a program to the
'official' MINIX format, use <EM>pretty</EM>, which calls <EM>indent</EM> with the proper
options and then postprocesses the output. The options listed below
control the formatting style.
OPTION: <STRONG>-bad</STRONG>, <STRONG>-nbad</STRONG>
If <STRONG>-bad</STRONG> is specified, a blank line is forced after every block of
declarations. Default: <STRONG>-nbad</STRONG>.
OPTION: <STRONG>-bap</STRONG>, <STRONG>-nbap</STRONG>
If <STRONG>-bap</STRONG> is specified, a blank line is forced after every procedure
body. Default: <STRONG>-nbap</STRONG>.
OPTION: <STRONG>-bbb</STRONG>, <STRONG>-nbbb</STRONG>
If <STRONG>-bbb</STRONG> is specified, a blank line is forced before every block
comment. Default: <STRONG>-nbbb</STRONG>.
OPTION: <STRONG>-bc</STRONG>, <STRONG>-nbc</STRONG>
If <STRONG>-bc</STRONG> is specified, then a newline is forced after each comma in a
declaration. <STRONG>-nbc</STRONG> turns off this option. The default is <STRONG>-nbc</STRONG>.
OPTION: <STRONG>-bl</STRONG>, <STRONG>-br</STRONG>
Specifying <STRONG>-bl</STRONG> lines up compound statements like this:
if (...)
{
code
}
Specifying <STRONG>-br</STRONG> (the default) makes them look like this:
if (...) {
code
}
OPTION: <STRONG>-c</STRONG><EM>n</EM>
The column in which comments on code start. The default is 33.
OPTION: <STRONG>-cd</STRONG><EM>n</EM>
The column in which comments on declarations start. The default is
for these comments to start in the same column as those on code.
OPTION: <STRONG>-cdb</STRONG>, <STRONG>-ncdb</STRONG>
Enables (disables) the placement of comment delimiters on blank
lines. With this option enabled, comments look like this:
/*
* this is a comment
*/
Rather than like this:
/* this is a comment */
This only affects block comments, not comments to the right of code. The
default is <STRONG>-cdb</STRONG>.
OPTION: <STRONG>-ce</STRONG>, <STRONG>-nce</STRONG>
Enables (disables) forcing 'else's to cuddle up to the immediately
preceding '}'. The default is <STRONG>-ce</STRONG>.
OPTION: <STRONG>-ci</STRONG><EM>n</EM>
Sets the continuation indent to be <EM>n</EM>. Continuation lines will be
indented that far from the beginning of the first line of the statement.
Parenthesized expressions have extra indentation added to indicate the
nesting, unless <STRONG>-lp</STRONG> is in effect. <STRONG>-ci</STRONG> defaults to the same value as <STRONG>-i</STRONG>.
OPTION: <STRONG>-cli</STRONG><EM>n</EM>
Causes case labels to be indented <EM>n</EM> tab stops to the right of the
containing switch statement. <STRONG>-cli</STRONG>0.5 causes case labels to be indented
half a tab stop. The default is <STRONG>-cli</STRONG>0. (This is the only option that
takes a fractional argument.)
OPTION: <STRONG>-d</STRONG><EM>n</EM>
Controls the placement of comments which are not to the right of
code. Specifying <STRONG>-d</STRONG>1 means that such comments are placed one
indentation level to the left of code. The default <STRONG>-d</STRONG>0 lines up these
comments with the code. See the section on comment indentation below.
OPTION: <STRONG>-di</STRONG><EM>n</EM>
Specifies the indentation, in character positions, from a
declaration keyword to the following identifier. The default is <STRONG>-di</STRONG>16.
OPTION: <STRONG>-dj</STRONG>, <STRONG>-ndj</STRONG>
<STRONG>-dj</STRONG> left justifies declarations. <STRONG>-ndj</STRONG> indents declarations the
same as code. The default is <STRONG>-ndj</STRONG>.
OPTION: <STRONG>-ei</STRONG>, <STRONG>-nei</STRONG>
Enables (disables) special else<STRONG>-if</STRONG> processing. If enabled, ifs
following elses will have the same indentation as the preceding if
statement. The default is <STRONG>-ei</STRONG>.
OPTION: <STRONG>-fc</STRONG>1, <STRONG>-nfc</STRONG>1
Enables (disables) the formatting of comments that start in column
1. Often, comments whose leading '/' is in column 1 have been carefully
hand formatted by the programmer. In such cases, <STRONG>-nfc</STRONG>1 should be used.
The default is <STRONG>-fc</STRONG>1.
OPTION: <STRONG>-i</STRONG><EM>n</EM>
The number of spaces for one indentation level. The default is 8.
OPTION: <STRONG>-ip</STRONG>, <STRONG>-nip</STRONG>
Enables (disables) the indentation of parameter declarations from
the left margin. The default is <STRONG>-ip</STRONG>.
OPTION: <STRONG>-ln</STRONG>
Maximum length of an output line. The default is 78.
OPTION: <STRONG>-lp</STRONG>, <STRONG>-nlp</STRONG>
Lines up code surrounded by parenthesis in continuation lines. If
a line has a left paren which is not closed on that line, then
continuation lines will be lined up to start at the character position
just after the left paren.
OPTION: <STRONG>-npro</STRONG>
Causes the profile files, .<EM>indent</EM>.<EM>pro</EM> in both the current directory
and the user's home directory to be ignored.
OPTION: <STRONG>-pcs</STRONG>, <STRONG>-npcs</STRONG>
If true (<STRONG>-pcs</STRONG>) all procedure calls will have a space inserted
between the name and the '('. The default is <STRONG>-npcs</STRONG>.
OPTION: <STRONG>-ps</STRONG>, <STRONG>-nps</STRONG>
If true (<STRONG>-ps</STRONG>) the pointer following operator '-&gt;' will be
surrounded by spaces on either side. The default is <STRONG>-nps</STRONG>.
OPTION: <STRONG>-psl</STRONG>, <STRONG>-npsl</STRONG>
If true (<STRONG>-psl</STRONG>) the names of procedures being defined are placed in
column 1 - their types, if any, will be left on the previous lines. The
default is <STRONG>-psl</STRONG>.
OPTION: <STRONG>-sc</STRONG>, <STRONG>-nsc</STRONG>
Enables (disables) the placement of asterisks (*) at the left edge
of all comments. The default is <STRONG>-sc</STRONG>.
OPTION: <STRONG>-sob</STRONG>, <STRONG>-nsob</STRONG>
If <STRONG>-sob</STRONG> is specified, <EM>indent</EM> will swallow optional blank lines.
You can use this to get rid of blank lines after declarations. The
default is <STRONG>-nsob</STRONG>.
OPTION: <STRONG>-st</STRONG>
Causes <EM>indent</EM> to take its input from <EM>stdin</EM>, and put its output to
<EM>stdout</EM>.
OPTION: <STRONG>-T</STRONG><EM>typename</EM>
Adds typename to the list of type keywords. Names accumulate: <STRONG>-T</STRONG>
can be specified more than once. You need to specify all the typenames
that appear in your program that are defined by #typedefs. Nothing will
be harmed if you miss a few, but the program will not be formatted as
nicely as it should. This sounds like a painful thing to have to do,
but it is really a symptom of a problem in C: typedef causes a syntactic
change in the language and <EM>indent</EM> cannot find all typedefs.
OPTION: <STRONG>-troff</STRONG>
Causes <EM>indent</EM> to format the program for processing by <EM>troff</EM>. It
will produce a fancy listing in much the same spirit as <EM>vgrind</EM>. If the
output file is not specified, the default is standard output, rather
than formatting in place.
OPTION: <STRONG>-v</STRONG>, <STRONG>-nv</STRONG>
The <STRONG>-v</STRONG> flag turns on verbose mode; <STRONG>-nv</STRONG> turns it off. When in
verbose mode, <EM>indent</EM> reports when it splits one line of input into two
or more lines of output, and gives some size statistics at completion.
The default is <STRONG>-nv</STRONG>.
<STRONG>User</STRONG> <STRONG>Profiles</STRONG>
You may set up your own profile of defaults to <EM>indent</EM> by creating a
file called .<EM>indent</EM>.<EM>pro</EM> in either your login directory and/or the
current directory and including whatever switches you like. Switches in
.<EM>indent</EM>.<EM>pro</EM> in the current directory override those in your login
directory (with the exception of <STRONG>-T</STRONG> type definitions, which just
accumulate). If <EM>indent</EM> is run and a profile file exists, then it is read
to set up the program's defaults. The switches should be separated by
spaces, tabs or newlines. Switches on the command line, however,
override profile switches.
<STRONG>Comments</STRONG>
<EM>Indent</EM> assumes that any comment with a dash or star immediately
after the start of comment (that is, '/*-' or '/**') is a comment
surrounded by a box of stars. Each line of such a comment is left
unchanged, except that its indentation may be adjusted to account for
the change in indentation of the first line of the comment.
All other comments are treated as straight text. Indent fits as
many words (separated by blanks, tabs, or newlines) on a line as
possible. Blank lines break paragraphs.
If a comment is on a line with code it is started in the comment
column, which is set by the <STRONG>-cn</STRONG> command line parameter. Otherwise, the
comment is started at <EM>n</EM> indentation levels less than where code is
currently being placed, where n is specified by the <STRONG>-dn</STRONG> command line
parameter. If the code on a line extends past the comment column, the
comment starts further to the right, and the right margin may be
automatically extended in extreme cases.
<STRONG>Preprocessor</STRONG> <STRONG>Lines</STRONG>
In general, <EM>indent</EM> leaves preprocessor lines alone. The only
reformatting that it will do is to straighten up trailing comments. It
leaves embedded comments alone. Conditional compilation
(#ifdef...#endif) is recognized and <EM>indent</EM> attempts to correctly
compensate for the syntactic peculiarities introduced.
<STRONG>C</STRONG> <STRONG>Syntax</STRONG>
Indent understands a substantial amount about the syntax of C, but
it has a forgiving parser. It attempts to cope with the usual sorts of
incomplete and misformed syntax. In particular, the use of macros like:
#define forever for(;;)
is handled properly.
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<TITLE>kermit(9)</TITLE>
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<H1>kermit(9)</H1>
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<PRE>
<STRONG>Command:</STRONG> <STRONG>kermit</STRONG> <STRONG>-</STRONG> <STRONG>transfer</STRONG> <STRONG>a</STRONG> <STRONG>file</STRONG> <STRONG>using</STRONG> <STRONG>the</STRONG> <STRONG>kermit</STRONG> <STRONG>protocol</STRONG>
<STRONG>Syntax:</STRONG> <STRONG>kermit</STRONG>
<STRONG>Flags:</STRONG> (many)
<STRONG>Example:</STRONG> kermit # Start kermit
This is a slightly lobotomized <EM>kermit</EM>. The help command, the
script facility, and the automatic dial support have been removed. The ?
and ESC commands still work, so there is still reasonable built-in help.
The only V7 <EM>kermit</EM> feature that does not work is the ability to see
whether there are input characters waiting. This means that you will
not be able to ask for status during a file transfer (though this is not
critical, because <EM>kermit</EM> prints a dot every so often and other special
characters whenever there is an error or timeout).
Start <EM>kermit</EM>, and then type the following to open a 2400 baud
session, for example:
<STRONG>set</STRONG> <STRONG>line</STRONG> <STRONG>/dev/tty1</STRONG>
<STRONG>set</STRONG> <STRONG>speed</STRONG> <STRONG>2400</STRONG>
<STRONG>connect</STRONG>
(It is more convenient if you put these commands in .<EM>kermrc</EM> in your home
directory, so that they get done automatically whenever you run <EM>kermit</EM>.)
This will connect you to the modem or whatever on the serial port. Now
log into the other system.
When you want to transfer files, run <EM>kermit</EM> on the other system.
To it, type
<STRONG>server</STRONG>
This puts its <EM>kermit</EM> into a sort of 'slave mode' where it expects
commands from the <EM>kermit</EM> running on your MINIX system. Now come back to
the command level on MINIX <EM>kermit</EM>, by typing the escape character
followed by <EM>c</EM>. (<EM>Kermit</EM> will tell you the current escape character when
you do the connect command.) At this point you can issue various
commands. Your <EM>kermit</EM> will coordinate things with <EM>kermit</EM> on the other
machine so that you only have to type commands at one end. Common
commands are
<STRONG>get</STRONG> <EM>filename</EM>
<STRONG>put</STRONG> <EM>filename</EM>
<STRONG>remote</STRONG> <EM>dir</EM>
Filenames can include wildcards. By default, <EM>kermit</EM> works in a system-
independent, text mode. (In effect it assumes that the whole world is
MS-DOS and converts end of line and file names accordingly.) To send
binary files, you will want to type
<STRONG>set</STRONG> <STRONG>file</STRONG> <STRONG>type</STRONG> <STRONG>bin</STRONG>
on both ends before starting any transfers. This disables CR LF to
newline conversion. If both of your systems are some flavor of UNIX,
you might as well put this in .<EM>kermrc</EM> on both ends and run in binary
mode all the time. Also, if both systems are UNIX it is recommended
that you use
<STRONG>set</STRONG> <STRONG>file</STRONG> <STRONG>name</STRONG> <STRONG>lit</STRONG>
on both ends. This causes it to keep file names unchanged, rather than
mapping to legal MS-DOS names.
Here is a typical .<EM>kermrc</EM> for use on MINIX:
<STRONG>set</STRONG> <STRONG>line</STRONG> <STRONG>/dev/tty1</STRONG>
<STRONG>set</STRONG> <STRONG>speed</STRONG> <STRONG>1200</STRONG>
<STRONG>set</STRONG> <STRONG>esc</STRONG> <STRONG>29</STRONG>
<STRONG>set</STRONG> <STRONG>file</STRONG> <STRONG>type</STRONG> <STRONG>bin</STRONG>
<STRONG>set</STRONG> <STRONG>file</STRONG> <STRONG>name</STRONG> <STRONG>lit</STRONG>
<STRONG>set</STRONG> <STRONG>retry</STRONG> <STRONG>90</STRONG>
<STRONG>set</STRONG> <STRONG>prompt</STRONG> <STRONG>MINIX</STRONG> <STRONG>kermit&gt;</STRONG>
<STRONG>connect</STRONG>
On the other end of the line, for example, the host at your local
computer center to which you want to transfer files, a typical profile
might be:
<STRONG>set</STRONG> <STRONG>rec</STRONG> <STRONG>packet</STRONG> <STRONG>1000</STRONG>
<STRONG>set</STRONG> <STRONG>fil</STRONG> <STRONG>name</STRONG> <STRONG>lit</STRONG>
<STRONG>set</STRONG> <STRONG>fil</STRONG> <STRONG>type</STRONG> <STRONG>bin</STRONG>
<STRONG>server</STRONG>
<EM>Kermit</EM> has many other options and features. For a pleasant and
highly readable description of it, see the following book:
Title: Kermit: A File Transfer Protocol
Author: Frank da Cruz
Publisher: Digital Press
Date: 1987
ISBN: 0-932376-88
For information about recent <EM>kermit</EM> developments, versions for
other systems, and so forth, please contact:
Christine M. Gianone
Manager, Kermit Development and Distribution
University Center for Computing Activities
Columbia University
612 West 115th Street
New York, N.Y. 10025
Over 400 versions of <EM>kermit</EM> are available, so it is likely there is one
for any computer your MINIX system might want to talk to. Columbia
University also publishes a newsletter about <EM>kermit</EM> that can be
requested from the above address.
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<H1>m4(9)</H1>
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<STRONG>Command:</STRONG> <STRONG>m4</STRONG> <STRONG>-</STRONG> <STRONG>macro</STRONG> <STRONG>processor</STRONG>
<STRONG>Syntax:</STRONG> <STRONG>m4</STRONG> [<STRONG>-D</STRONG> <EM>name</EM> = <EM>value</EM>] [<STRONG>-U</STRONG> <EM>name</EM>]
<STRONG>Flags:</STRONG> <STRONG>-D</STRONG> Define a symbol
<STRONG>-U</STRONG> Undefine a symbol
<STRONG>Example:</STRONG> m4 &lt;m4test # Run M4
<EM>M4</EM> is a macro processor intended as a front end for Ratfor, Pascal,
and other languages that do not have a built-in macro processing
capability. M4 reads standard input, the processed text is written on
the standard output.
The options and their effects are as follows:
-D name[=val] Defines name to val, or to null in val's absence.
-U name Undefines name.
Macro calls have the form: name(arg1,arg2, ..., argn)
The '(' must immediately follow the name of the macro. If the name of a
defined macro is not followed by a ( it is taken to be a call of that
macro with no arguments, i.e. name(). Potential macro names consist of
alphabetic letters and digits.
Leading unquoted blanks, tabs and newlines are ignored while
collecting arguments. Left and right single quotes are used to quote
strings. The value of a quoted string is the string stripped of the
quotes.
When a macro name is recognized, its arguments are collected by
searching for a matching ). If fewer arguments are supplied than are in
the macro definition, the trailing arguments are taken to be null.
Macro evaluation proceeds normally during the collection of the
arguments, and any commas or right parentheses which happen to turn up
within the value of a nested call are as effective as those in the
original input text. (This is typically referred as inside-out macro
expansion.) After argument collection, the value of the macro is pushed
back onto the input stream and rescanned.
M4 makes available the following built-in macros. They may be
redefined, but once this is done the original meaning is lost. Their
values are null unless otherwise stated.
<STRONG>define</STRONG> <STRONG>"(name</STRONG> <STRONG>[,</STRONG> <STRONG>val])"</STRONG> the second argument is installed as the
value of the macro whose name is the first argument. If there is no
second argument, the value is null. Each occurrence of $ n in the
replacement text, where n is a digit, is replaced by the n -th argument.
Argument 0 is the name of the macro; missing arguments are replaced by
the null string.
<STRONG>defn</STRONG> <STRONG>"(name</STRONG> <STRONG>[,</STRONG> <STRONG>name</STRONG> <STRONG>...])"</STRONG> returns the quoted definition of its
argument(s). Useful in renaming macros.
<STRONG>undefine</STRONG> <STRONG>"(name</STRONG> <STRONG>[,</STRONG> <STRONG>name</STRONG> <STRONG>...])"</STRONG> removes the definition of the
macro(s) named. If there is more than one definition for the named
macro, (due to previous use of pushdef) all definitions are removed.
<STRONG>pushdef</STRONG> <STRONG>"(name</STRONG> <STRONG>[,</STRONG> <STRONG>val])"</STRONG> like define, but saves any previous
definition by stacking the current definition.
<STRONG>popdef</STRONG> <STRONG>"(name</STRONG> <STRONG>[,</STRONG> <STRONG>name</STRONG> <STRONG>...])"</STRONG> removes current definition of its
argument(s), exposing the previous one if any.
<STRONG>ifdef</STRONG> <STRONG>"(name,</STRONG> <STRONG>if</STRONG>-<STRONG>def</STRONG> <STRONG>[,</STRONG> <STRONG>ifnot</STRONG>-<STRONG>def])"</STRONG> if the first argument is
defined, the value is the second argument, otherwise the third. If
there is no third argument, the value is null. A word indicating the
current operating system is predefined. (e.g. unix or vms).
<STRONG>shift</STRONG> <STRONG>"(arg,</STRONG> <STRONG>arg,</STRONG> <STRONG>arg,</STRONG> <STRONG>...)"</STRONG> returns all but its first argument.
The other arguments are quoted and pushed back with commas in between.
The quoting nullifies the effect of the extra scan that will
subsequently be performed.
<STRONG>changequote</STRONG> <STRONG>"(lqchar,</STRONG> <STRONG>rqchar)"</STRONG> change quote symbols to the first
and second arguments. With no arguments, the quotes are reset back to
the default characters. (i.e., `').
<STRONG>changecom</STRONG> <STRONG>"(lcchar,</STRONG> <STRONG>rcchar)"</STRONG> change left and right comment markers
from the default # and newline. With no arguments, the comment
mechanism is reset back to the default characters. With one argument,
the left marker becomes the argument and the right marker becomes
newline. With two arguments, both markers are affected.
<STRONG>divert</STRONG> <STRONG>"(divnum)"</STRONG> maintains 10 output streams, numbered 0-9.
Initially stream 0 is the current stream. The divert macro changes the
current output stream to its (digit-string) argument. Output diverted
to a stream other than 0 through 9 is lost.
<STRONG>undivert</STRONG> <STRONG>"([divnum</STRONG> <STRONG>[,</STRONG> <STRONG>divnum</STRONG> <STRONG>...]])"</STRONG> causes immediate output of
text from diversions named as argument(s), or all diversions if no
argument. Text may be undiverted into another diversion. Undiverting
discards the diverted text. At the end of input processing, M4 forces an
automatic undivert unless is defined.
<STRONG>divnum</STRONG> <STRONG>"()"</STRONG> returns the value of the current output stream.
<STRONG>dnl</STRONG> <STRONG>"()"</STRONG> reads and discards characters up to and including the next
newline.
<STRONG>ifelse</STRONG> <STRONG>"(arg,</STRONG> <STRONG>arg,</STRONG> <STRONG>if</STRONG>-<STRONG>same</STRONG> <STRONG>[,</STRONG> <STRONG>ifnot</STRONG>-<STRONG>same</STRONG> <STRONG>|</STRONG> <STRONG>arg,</STRONG> <STRONG>arg</STRONG> <STRONG>...])"</STRONG> has
three or more arguments. If the first argument is the same string as
the second, then the value is the third argument. If not, and if there
are more than four arguments, the process is repeated with arguments 4,
5, 6 and 7. Otherwise, the value is either the fourth string, or, if it
is not present, null.
<STRONG>incr</STRONG> <STRONG>"(num)"</STRONG> returns the value of its argument incremented by 1.
The value of the argument is calculated by interpreting an initial
digit-string as a decimal number.
<STRONG>decr</STRONG> <STRONG>"(num)"</STRONG> returns the value of its argument decremented by 1.
<STRONG>eval</STRONG> <STRONG>"(expression)"</STRONG> evaluates its argument as a constant
expression, using integer arithmetic. The evaluation mechanism is very
similar to that of cpp (#if expression). The expression can involve
only integer constants and character constants, possibly connected by
the binary operators
* / % + - &gt;&gt; &lt;&lt; &lt; &gt; &lt;= &gt;= == != &amp;
^ | &amp;&amp; ||
or the unary operators - ! or tilde or by the ternary operator ? : .
Parentheses may be used for grouping. Octal numbers may be specified as
in C.
<STRONG>len</STRONG> <STRONG>"(string)"</STRONG> returns the number of characters in its argument.
<STRONG>index</STRONG> <STRONG>"(search</STRONG>-<STRONG>string,</STRONG> <STRONG>string)"</STRONG> returns the position in its first
argument where the second argument begins (zero origin), or 1 if the
second argument does not occur.
<STRONG>substr</STRONG> <STRONG>"(string,</STRONG> <STRONG>index</STRONG> <STRONG>[,</STRONG> <STRONG>length])"</STRONG> returns a substring of its
first argument. The second argument is a zero origin number selecting
the first character (internally treated as an expression); the third
argument indicates the length of the substring. A missing third
argument is taken to be large enough to extend to the end of the first
string.
<STRONG>translit</STRONG> <STRONG>"(source,</STRONG> <STRONG>from</STRONG> <STRONG>[,</STRONG> <STRONG>to])"</STRONG> transliterates the characters in
its first argument from the set given by the second argument to the set
given by the third. If the third argument is shorter than the second,
all extra characters in the second argument are deleted from the first
argument. If the third argument is missing altogether, all characters in
the second argument are deleted from the first argument.
<STRONG>include</STRONG> <STRONG>"(filename)"</STRONG> returns the contents of the file that is named
in the argument.
<STRONG>sinclude</STRONG> <STRONG>"(filename)"</STRONG>is identical to include, except that it says
nothing if the file is inaccessable.
<STRONG>paste</STRONG> <STRONG>"(filename)"</STRONG> returns the contents of the file named in the
argument without any processing, unlike include.
<STRONG>spaste</STRONG> <STRONG>"(filename)"</STRONG> is identical to paste, except that it says
nothing if the file is inaccessibl[De.
<STRONG>syscmd</STRONG> <STRONG>"(command)"</STRONG> executes the UNIX command given in the first
argument. No value is returned.
<STRONG>sysval</STRONG> <STRONG>"()"</STRONG> is the return code from the last call to syscmd.
.PP <STRONG>maketemp</STRONG> <STRONG>'(string)"</STRONG> fills in a string of XXXXXX in its argument
with the current process ID.
<STRONG>m4exit</STRONG> <STRONG>"([exitcode])"</STRONG> causes immediate exit from M4. Argument 1,
if given, is the exit code; the default is 0.
<STRONG>m4wrap</STRONG> <STRONG>"(m4</STRONG>-<STRONG>macro</STRONG>-<STRONG>or</STRONG>-<STRONG>built</STRONG>-<STRONG>n)"</STRONG> argument 1 will be pushed back at
final EOF; example: m4wrap(`dumptable()').
<STRONG>errprint</STRONG> <STRONG>"(str</STRONG> <STRONG>[,</STRONG> <STRONG>str,</STRONG> <STRONG>str,</STRONG> <STRONG>...])"</STRONG> prints its argument(s) on
stderr. If there is more than one argument, each argument is separated
by a space during the output. An arbitrary number of arguments may be
supplied.
<STRONG>dumpdef</STRONG> <STRONG>"([name,</STRONG> <STRONG>name,</STRONG> <STRONG>...])"</STRONG> prints current names and definitions,
for the named items, or for all if no arguments are given.
<STRONG>Author</STRONG>
<EM>M4</EM> was written by Ozan S. Yigif.
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<H1>mined(9)</H1>
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<PRE>
<STRONG>Command:</STRONG> <STRONG>mined</STRONG> <STRONG>-</STRONG> <STRONG>MINIX</STRONG> <STRONG>editor</STRONG>
<STRONG>Syntax:</STRONG> <STRONG>mined</STRONG> [<EM>file</EM>]
<STRONG>Flags:</STRONG> (none)
<STRONG>Examples:</STRONG> mined /user/ast/book.3 # Edit an existing file
mined # Call editor to create a new file
ls -l | mined # Use <EM>mined</EM> as a pager to inspect
listing
<EM>Mined</EM> is a simple screen editor. At any instant, a window of 24
lines is visible on the screen. The current position in the file is
shown by the cursor. Ordinary characters typed in are inserted at the
cursor. Control characters and keys on the numeric keypad (at the
right-hand side of the keyboard) are used to move the cursor and perform
other functions.
Commands exist to move forward and backward a word, and delete
words either in front of the cursor or behind it. A word in this
context is a sequence of characters delimited on both ends by white
space (space, tab, line feed, start of file, or end of file). The
commands for deleting characters and words also work on line feeds,
making it possible to join two consecutive lines by deleting the line
feed between them.
The editor maintains one save buffer (not displayed). Commands are
present to move text from the file to the buffer, from the buffer to the
file, and to write the buffer onto a new file. If the edited text
cannot be written out due to a full disk, it may still be possible to
copy the whole text to the save buffer and then write it to a different
file on a different disk with CTRL-Q. It may also be possible to escape
from the editor with CTRL-S and remove some files.
Some of the commands prompt for arguments (file names, search
patterns, etc.). All commands that might result in loss of the file
being edited prompt to ask for confirmation.
A key (command or ordinary character) can be repeated <EM>n</EM> times by
typing <EM>ESC</EM> <EM>n</EM> <EM>key</EM> where <EM>ESC</EM> is the 'escape' key.
Forward and backward searching requires a regular expression as the
search pattern. Regular expressions follow the same rules as in the
UNIX editor, <EM>ed</EM>. These rules can be stated as:
Any displayable character matches itself.
. (period) matches any character except line feed.
^ (circumflex) matches the start of the line.
$ (dollar sign) matches the end of the line.
\c matches the character <EM>c</EM> (including period, circumflex, etc).
[<EM>string</EM>] matches any of the characters in the string.
[^string] matches any of the characters except those in the
string.
[<EM>x</EM>-<EM>y</EM>] matches any characters between <EM>x</EM> and <EM>y</EM> (e.g., [<EM>a</EM>-<EM>z</EM>]).
Pattern* matches any number of occurrences of <EM>pattern</EM>.
Some examples of regular expressions are:
The boy matches the string 'The boy'
^$ matches any empty line.
^.$ matches any line containing exactly 1 character
^A.*\.$ matches any line starting with an <EM>A</EM>, ending with a
period.
^[A-Z]*$ matches any line containing only capital letters (or
empty).
[A-Z0-9] matches any line containing either a capital letter or a
digit.
.*X$ matches any line ending in 'X'
A.*B matches any line containing an 'A' and then a 'B'
Control characters cannot be entered into a file simply by typing
them because all of them are editor commands. To enter a control
character, depress the ALT key, and then while holding it down, hit the
ESC key. Release both ALT and ESC and type the control character.
Control characters are displayed in reverse video.
The <EM>mined</EM> commands are as follows.
<STRONG>CURSOR</STRONG> <STRONG>MOTION</STRONG>
<STRONG>arrows</STRONG> Move the cursor in the indicated direction
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>A</STRONG> Move cursor to start of current line
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>Z</STRONG> Move cursor to end of current line
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>^</STRONG> Move cursor to top of screen
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>_</STRONG> Move cursor to end of screen
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>F</STRONG> Move cursor forward to start of next word
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>B</STRONG> Move cursor backward to start of previous word
<STRONG>SCREEN</STRONG> <STRONG>MOTION</STRONG>
<STRONG>Home</STRONG> <STRONG>key</STRONG> Move to first character of the file
<STRONG>End</STRONG> <STRONG>key</STRONG> Move to last character of the file
<STRONG>PgUp</STRONG> <STRONG>key</STRONG> Scroll window up 23 lines (closer to start of the file)
<STRONG>PgDn</STRONG> <STRONG>key</STRONG> Scroll window down 23 lines (closer to end of the file)
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>U</STRONG> Scroll window up 1 line
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>D</STRONG> Scroll window down 1 line
<STRONG>MODIFYING</STRONG> <STRONG>TEXT</STRONG>
<STRONG>Del</STRONG> <STRONG>key</STRONG> Delete the character under the cursor
<STRONG>Backspace</STRONG> Delete the character to left of the cursor
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>N</STRONG> Delete the next word
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>P</STRONG> Delete the previous word
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>T</STRONG> Delete tail of line (all characters from cursor to end of
line)
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>O</STRONG> Open up the line (insert line feed and back up)
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>G</STRONG> Get and insert a file at the cursor position
<STRONG>BUFFER</STRONG> <STRONG>OPERATIONS</STRONG>
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>@</STRONG> Set mark at current position for use with CTRL-C and
CTRL-K
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>C</STRONG> Copy the text between the mark and the cursor into the
buffer
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>K</STRONG> Delete text between mark and cursor; also copy it to the
buffer
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>Y</STRONG> Yank contents of the buffer out and insert it at the
cursor
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>Q</STRONG> Write the contents of the buffer onto a file
<STRONG>MISCELLANEOUS</STRONG>
<STRONG>numeric</STRONG> <STRONG>+</STRONG> Search forward (prompts for regular expression)
<STRONG>numeric</STRONG> <STRONG>-</STRONG> Search backward (prompts for regular expression)
<STRONG>numeric</STRONG> <STRONG>5</STRONG> Display the file status
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>]</STRONG> Go to specific line
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>R</STRONG> Global replace <EM>pattern</EM> with <EM>string</EM> (from cursor to end)
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>L</STRONG> Line replace <EM>pattern</EM> with <EM>string</EM>
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>W</STRONG> Write the edited file back to the disk
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>X</STRONG> Exit the editor
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>S</STRONG> Fork off a shell (use CTRL-D to get back to the editor)
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>\</STRONG> Abort whatever the editor was doing and wait for command
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>E</STRONG> Erase screen and redraw it
<STRONG>CTRL</STRONG>-<STRONG>V</STRONG> Visit (edit) a new file
<STRONG>Author</STRONG>
<EM>Mined</EM> was designed by Andy Tanenbaum and written by Michiel
Huisjes.
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<H1>roff(9)</H1>
<HR>
<PRE>
<STRONG>Command:</STRONG> <STRONG>roff</STRONG> <STRONG>-</STRONG> <STRONG>text</STRONG> <STRONG>formatter</STRONG>
<STRONG>Syntax:</STRONG> <STRONG>roff</STRONG> [<STRONG>-hs</STRONG>] [<STRONG>+</STRONG><EM>n</EM>] [<STRONG>-</STRONG><EM>n</EM>] <EM>file</EM> ...
<STRONG>Flags:</STRONG> <STRONG>-h</STRONG> Expand tabs to spaces in output
<STRONG>-s</STRONG> Stop before each page; continue on DEL
<STRONG>+</STRONG><EM>n</EM> Start printing with page <EM>n</EM>
<STRONG>-</STRONG><EM>n</EM> Stop after page <EM>n</EM>
<STRONG>Examples:</STRONG> roff file # Run off <EM>file</EM>
roff +5 file # Run off <EM>file</EM> starting at page 5
<EM>Roff</EM> is a text formatter. Its input consists of the text to be
output, intermixed with formatting commands. A formatting command is a
line containing the control character followed by a two character
command name, and possibly one or more arguments. The control character
is initially '.' (dot). The formatted output is produced on standard
output.
The formatting commands are listed below, with <EM>n</EM> being a number, <EM>c</EM>
being a character, and <EM>t</EM> being a title. A + before <EM>n</EM> means it may be
signed, indicating a positive or negative change from the current value.
Initial values for <EM>n</EM>, where relevant, are given in parentheses.
<STRONG>.ad</STRONG> Adjust right margin.
<STRONG>.ar</STRONG> Arabic page numbers.
<STRONG>.br</STRONG> Line break. Subsequent text will begin on a new line.
<STRONG>.bl</STRONG> n Insert <EM>n</EM> blank lines.
<STRONG>.bp</STRONG> +n Begin new page and number it <EM>n</EM>. No <EM>n</EM> means +1.
<STRONG>.cc</STRONG> c Control character is set to <EM>c</EM>.
<STRONG>.ce</STRONG> n Center the next <EM>n</EM> input lines.
<STRONG>.de</STRONG> zz Define a macro called <EM>zz</EM>. A line with '..' ends definition.
<STRONG>.ds</STRONG> Double space the output. Same as <STRONG>.ls</STRONG> <STRONG>2</STRONG>.
<STRONG>.ef</STRONG> t Even page footer title is set to <EM>t</EM>.
<STRONG>.eh</STRONG> t Even page header title is set to <EM>t</EM>.
<STRONG>.fi</STRONG> Begin filling output lines as full as possible.
<STRONG>.fo</STRONG> t Footer titles (even and odd) are set to <EM>t</EM>.
<STRONG>.hc</STRONG> c The character <EM>c</EM> (e.g., %) tells <EM>roff</EM> where hyphens are
permitted.
<STRONG>.he</STRONG> t Header titles (even and odd) are set to <EM>t</EM>.
<STRONG>.hx</STRONG> Header titles are suppressed.
<STRONG>.hy</STRONG> n Hyphenation is done if <EM>n</EM> is 1, suppressed if it is 0.
Default is 1.
<STRONG>.ig</STRONG> Ignore input lines until a line beginning with '..' is
found.
<STRONG>.in</STRONG> n Indent <EM>n</EM> spaces from the left margin; force line break.
<STRONG>.ix</STRONG> n Same as .<EM>in</EM> but continue filling output on current line.
<STRONG>.li</STRONG> n Literal text on next <EM>n</EM> lines. Copy to output unmodified.
<STRONG>.ll</STRONG> +n Line length (including indent) is set to <EM>n</EM> (65).
<STRONG>.ls</STRONG> +n Line spacing: <EM>n</EM> (1) is 1 for single spacing, 2 for double,
etc.
<STRONG>.m1</STRONG> n Insert <EM>n</EM> (2) blank lines between top of page and header.
<STRONG>.m2</STRONG> n Insert <EM>n</EM> (2) blank lines between header and start of text.
<STRONG>.m3</STRONG> n Insert <EM>n</EM> (1) blank lines between end of text and footer.
<STRONG>.m4</STRONG> n Insert <EM>n</EM> (3) blank lines between footer and end of page.
<STRONG>.na</STRONG> No adjustment of the right margin.
<STRONG>.ne</STRONG> n Need <EM>n</EM> lines. If fewer are left, go to next page.
<STRONG>.nn</STRONG> +n The next <EM>n</EM> output lines are not numbered.
<STRONG>.n1</STRONG> Number output lines in left margin starting at 1.
<STRONG>.n2</STRONG> n Number output lines starting at <EM>n</EM>. If 0, stop numbering.
<STRONG>.ni</STRONG> +n Indent line numbers by <EM>n</EM> (0) spaces.
<STRONG>.nf</STRONG> No more filling of lines.
<STRONG>.nx</STRONG> f Switch input to file <EM>f</EM>.
<STRONG>.of</STRONG> t Odd page footer title is set to <EM>t</EM>.
<STRONG>.oh</STRONG> t Odd page header title is set to <EM>t</EM>.
<STRONG>.pa</STRONG> +n Page adjust by <EM>n</EM> (1). Same as .bp
<STRONG>.pl</STRONG> +n Paper length is <EM>n</EM> (66) lines.
<STRONG>.po</STRONG> +n Page offset. Each line is started with <EM>n</EM> (0) spaces.
<STRONG>.ro</STRONG> Page numbers are printed in Roman numerals.
<STRONG>.sk</STRONG> n Skip <EM>n</EM> pages (i.e., make them blank), starting with next
one.
<STRONG>.sp</STRONG> n Insert <EM>n</EM> blank lines, except at top of page.
<STRONG>.ss</STRONG> Single spacing. Equivalent to .ls 1.
<STRONG>.ta</STRONG> Set tab stops, e.g., .ta 9 17 25 33 41 49 57 65 73
(default).
<STRONG>.tc</STRONG> c Tabs are expanded into <EM>c</EM>. Default is space.
<STRONG>.ti</STRONG> n Indent next line <EM>n</EM> spaces; then go back to previous indent.
<STRONG>.tr</STRONG> ab Translate <EM>a</EM> into <EM>b</EM> on output.
<STRONG>.ul</STRONG> n Underline the letters and numbers in the next <EM>n</EM> lines.
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