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xiaolai
2024-03-24 12:48:56 +08:00
committed by Lyric
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1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/1.1-alphabet.md
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@@ -10,32 +10,32 @@ Modern English is composed of *26* letters, each with both *uppercase* and *lowe
| Letter | Pronunciation | NATO Phonetic Alphabet |
| --------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| **A** *a* | `/eɪ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/a-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/a-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Alpha* `/ˈæl.fə/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Alpha-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Alpha-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **B** *b* | `/biː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/b-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/b-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Bravo* `/ˈbrɑː.voʊ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Bravo-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Bravo-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **C** *c* | `/siː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/c-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/c-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Charlie* `/ˈtʃɑːr.liː/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Charlie-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Charlie-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **D** *d* | `/diː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/d-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/d-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Delta* `/ˈdɛl.tə/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Delta-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Delta-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **E** *e* | `/iː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/e-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/e-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Echo* `/ˈɛk.oʊ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Echo-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Echo-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **F** *f* | `/ɛf/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/f-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/f-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Foxtrot* `/ˈfɔːks.trɒt/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Foxtrot-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Foxtrot-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **A** *a* | `/eɪ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/a-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/a-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Alpha* `/ˈæl·fə/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Alpha-us-guy·mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Alpha-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **B** *b* | `/biː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/b-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/b-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Bravo* `/ˈbrɑː·voʊ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Bravo-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Bravo-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **C** *c* | `/siː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/c-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/c-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Charlie* `/ˈtʃɑːr·liː/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Charlie-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Charlie-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **D** *d* | `/diː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/d-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/d-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Delta* `/ˈdɛl·tə/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Delta-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Delta-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **E** *e* | `/iː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/e-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/e-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Echo* `/ˈɛk·oʊ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Echo-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Echo-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **F** *f* | `/ɛf/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/f-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/f-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Foxtrot* `/ˈfɔːks·trɒt/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Foxtrot-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Foxtrot-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **G** *g* | `/dʒiː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/g-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/g-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Golf* `/ɡɑːf/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Golf-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Golf-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **H** *h* | `/eɪtʃ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/h-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/h-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Hotel* `/hoʊˈtɛl/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Hotel-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Hotel-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **I** *i* | `/aɪ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/i-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/i-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *India* `/ˈɪn.di.ə/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/India-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/India-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **I** *i* | `/aɪ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/i-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/i-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *India* `/ˈɪn·di·ə/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/India-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/India-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **J** *j* | `/dʒeɪ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/j-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/j-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Juliet* `/ˈdʒuːliːˌɛt/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Juliet-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Juliet-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **K** *k* | `/keɪ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/k-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/k-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Kilo* `/ˈkiː.loʊ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Kilo-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Kilo-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **L** *l* | `/ɛl/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/l-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/l-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Lima* `/ˈliː.mə/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Lima-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Lima-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **K** *k* | `/keɪ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/k-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/k-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Kilo* `/ˈkiː·loʊ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Kilo-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Kilo-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **L** *l* | `/ɛl/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/l-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/l-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Lima* `/ˈliː·mə/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Lima-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Lima-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **M** *m* | `/ɛm/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/m-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/m-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Mike* `/maɪk/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Mike-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Mike-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **N** *n* | `/ɛn/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/n-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/n-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *November* `/noʊˈvɛm.bər/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/November-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/November-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **O** *o* | `/oʊ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/o-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/o-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Oscar* `/ˈɑːs.kɑːr/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Oscar-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Oscar-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **N** *n* | `/ɛn/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/n-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/n-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *November* `/noʊˈvɛm·bər/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/November-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/November-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **O** *o* | `/oʊ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/o-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/o-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Oscar* `/ˈɑːs·kɑːr/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Oscar-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Oscar-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **P** *p* | `/piː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/p-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/p-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Papa* `/pəˈpɑː/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Papa-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Papa-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **Q** *q* | `/kjuː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/q-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/q-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Quebec* `/kəˈbɛk/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Quebec-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Quebec-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **R** *r* | `/ɑːr/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/r-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/r-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Romeo* `/ˈroʊ.miːˌoʊ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Romeo-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Romeo-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **S** *s* | `/ɛs/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/s-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/s-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Sierra* `/siˈɛr.ə/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Sierra-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Sierra-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **T** *t* | `/tiː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/t-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/t-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Tango* `/ˈtæŋ.ɡoʊ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Tango-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Tango-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **U** *u* | `/juː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/u-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/u-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Uniform* `/ˈjuː.nɪ.fɔːrm/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Uniform-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Uniform-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **V** *v* | `/viː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/v-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/v-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Victor* `/ˈvɪk.tər/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Victor-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Victor-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **W** *w* | `/ˈdʌbl̩juː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/w-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/w-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Whiskey* `/ˈwɪs.kiː/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Whiskey-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Whiskey-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **X** *x* | `/ɛks/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/x-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/x-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *X-ray* `/ˈɛks.reɪ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/X-ray-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/X-ray-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **Y** *y* | `/waɪ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/y-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/y-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Yankee* `/ˈjæŋ.kiː/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Yankee-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Yankee-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **Z** *z* | `/ziː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/z-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/z-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Zulu* `/ˈzuː.luː/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Zulu-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Zulu-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **R** *r* | `/ɑːr/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/r-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/r-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Romeo* `/ˈroʊ·miːˌoʊ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Romeo-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Romeo-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **S** *s* | `/ɛs/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/s-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/s-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Sierra* `/siˈɛr·ə/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Sierra-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Sierra-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **T** *t* | `/tiː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/t-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/t-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Tango* `/ˈtæŋ·ɡoʊ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Tango-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Tango-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **U** *u* | `/juː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/u-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/u-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Uniform* `/ˈjuː·nɪ·fɔːrm/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Uniform-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Uniform-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **V** *v* | `/viː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/v-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/v-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Victor* `/ˈvɪk·tər/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Victor-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Victor-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **W** *w* | `/ˈdʌb·ᵊl·juː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/w-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/w-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Whiskey* `/ˈwɪs·kiː/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Whiskey-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Whiskey-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **X** *x* | `/ɛks/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/x-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/x-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *X-ray* `/ˈɛks·reɪ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/X-ray-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/X-ray-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **Y** *y* | `/waɪ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/y-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/y-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Yankee* `/ˈjæŋ·kiː/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Yankee-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Yankee-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **Z** *z* | `/ziː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/z-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/z-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Zulu* `/ˈzuː·luː/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Zulu-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Zulu-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
在英式英语中，*z* 被读作 `/zed/`。
@@ -45,6 +45,3 @@ In British, letter *z* is pronounced as `/zed/`.
>
> * 合成语音文件使用的是 OpenAI 的 TTS (Text-to-Speech) 和微软的 Edge's TTS。蓝色喇叭图标<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Alpha-us-guy.mp3"></span>是男性语音，褐色喇叭图标<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Alpha-us-jen.mp3"></span>是女性语音。
> * The synthesized audio files primarily utilizes OpenAI's TTS (Text-to-Speech) and Microsoft Edge's TTS. The blue speaker icon<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Alpha-us-guy.mp3"></span>represents a male voice, whereas the brown speaker icon<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Alpha-us-jen.mp3"></span>signifies a female voice.
> * IPA 音标标注往是通过 OpenAI 的 ChatGPT 生成的，有时可能并不统一，或存在一些错误，需要纠正。
>
> * The IPA ([International Phonetic Alphabet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet)) notation used for phonetic transcription is generated by OpenAI's ChatGPT, which may occasionally make mistakes that need to be corrected.

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1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/1.2-phonemes.md
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@@ -14,50 +14,29 @@ English approximately has 20 *vowels*.
Vowels can be classified into *long* and *short* vowels, or alternatively, they can also be grouped as *monophthongs* and *diphthongs*.
| Monophthongs | | Diphthongs |
| ------------ | --------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------- |
| Short vowels | `ʌ`, `e`, `ə`, `ɪ`, `ʊ`, `ɒ` | |
| Long vowels | `ɑː`, `æ`, `əː`, `iː`, `uː`, `ɔː` | `aɪ`, `eɪ`, `ɔɪ`, `aʊ`, `oʊ`, `eə`, `ɪə`, `ʊə` |
| Monophthongs | | Diphthongs |
| ------------ | ---------------------------- | --------------------------------------- |
| Short vowels | `ʌ` `e` `ə` `ɪ` `ʊ` `ɒ` | |
| Long vowels | `ɑː` `æ` `əː` `iː` `uː` `ɔː` | `aɪ` `eɪ` `ɔɪ` `aʊ` `oʊ` `eə` `ɪə` `ʊə` |
6 个基础元音中，`ə` 和 `ɪ` 有相对更多的变体（*allophone*）：
In the 6 basic vowels, `ə` and `ɪ` have relatively more variants, or *allophones*:
严格意义上来讲，`æ` 是半长元音，即，它比长元音短一点，但比短元音长一点。
* `ɪ`：
* 除了长元音版本 `iː` 之外，还有一个半长版本 `i`，例如 *happy* `/ˈhæp·i/`[^1]；
* In addition to the long vowel version `i`ː, there's also a semi-long version `i`, as in *happy* `/ˈhæp·i/`.
* `ə`：
* 长元音版本 `əː` 在 CEPD[^2] 中被标注为 `ɜː`，例如 *bird* `/bɜːd/` (UK)
* The long vowel version `əː` is annotated as `ɜː` in the CEPD[^2], like in *bird* `/bɜːd/` (UK).
* 儿化的短元音 `ə` 被标注为 `ɚ`，例如 *mother* `/ˈmʌð·ɚ/`；
* The rhotacized short vowel `ə` is annotated as `ɚ`, as in *mother* pronounced `/ˈmʌð·ɚ/`.
* 儿化的长元音 `əː` 被标注为 `ɝː` 例如 *bird* `/bɝːd/` (US)
* The rhotacized long vowel `əː` is annotated as `ɝː`, like in *bird* pronounced `/bɝːd/` (US).
另外，英式英语中还有两个三元音: `aɪə` 比如，*fire* `/faɪə/`；*hour* `/aʊə/`。在英式英语中，这两个三元音被简化为两个双元音的更为明显的儿化音，`aɪə` → `aɪr`，比如，*fire* `/faɪr/`, *hour* `/aʊr/`。
Furthermore, in British English, there are two triphthongs: `aɪə` as in *fire* pronounced `/faɪə/` and `aʊə` as in *hour* pronounced `/aʊə/`. In American English, these two triphthongs simplify into more apparent rhotacized diphthongs, `aɪə` → `aɪr`, for example, *fire* pronounced `/faɪr/`, and *hour* pronounced `/aʊr/`.
To put it strictly, `æ` is a mid-length vowel. That means it's a bit shorter than long vowels but longer than short vowels.
## 1.2.2 辅音（Consonants）
英文大约 28 个辅音。
英文总计 28 个辅音。
English approximately has 28 *consonants*.
| Airflow | Voiced or not | Consonants |
| --------- | ------------- | ----------------------- |
| Plosive | Voiceless | `p`, `t`, `k` |
| | Voiced | `b`, `d`, `g` |
| Fricative | Voiceless | `f`, `s`, `θ`, `ʃ`, `h` |
| | Voiced | `v`, `z`, `ð`, `ʒ`, `r` |
| Affricate | Voiceless | `tʃ`, `tr`, `ts` |
| | Voiced | `dʒ`, `dr`, `dz` |
| Nasal | Voiced | `m`, `n`, `ŋ` |
| Lateral | Voiced | `l` |
| Semivowel | | `j`, `w` |
辅音 `t` 在美式英语中有个弹舌音变体，`t̬`，例如，*cutting* `/ˈkʌt̬·ɪŋ/`。
The consonant `t` has a flapping variant, `t̬`, as in the word *cutting*, pronounced `/ˈkʌt̬·ɪŋ/`.
[^1]: The middle dot `·` in `/ˈhæp·i/` is an annotation of syllable division. A dot `.` is used in CEPD, but for clearer html rendering, we use a raised one here.
[^2]: CEPD, Cambridge English Pronunciation Dictionary, https://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.html.
| Airflow | Voiced or not | Consonants |
| --------- | ------------- | ------------------- |
| Plosive | Voiceless | `p` `t` `k` |
| | Voiced | `b` `d` `g` |
| Fricative | Voiceless | `f` `s` `θ` `ʃ` `h` |
| | Voiced | `v` `z` `ð` `ʒ` `r` |
| Affricate | Voiceless | `tʃ` `tr` `ts` |
| | Voiced | `dʒ` `dr` `dz` |
| Nasal | Voiced | `m` `n` `ŋ` |
| Lateral | Voiced | `l` |
| Semivowel | | `j` `w` |

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# 1.3. 音标（Phonetics）
这个教程采用的注音体系是 D.J. 音标。[Daniel Jones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)) 于 1917 年发布 *English Pronouncing Dictionary* (*EPD*, 英语发音词典)，并在其后的多年里反复修订。最终它被剑桥接手，更名为 *Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary* (*CEPD*, 剑桥英语发音词典) 。*CEPD*于 1997 年发布第 *15* 版，增加了一些符号用以同时标注美式发音。目前的 *CEPD* 已经是[第 *18* 版](https://www.cambridge.org/gb/cambridgeenglish/catalog/dictionaries/cambridge-english-pronouncing-dictionary-18th-edition)。D.J. 音标目前被各大英语权威词典广泛采用，除了[剑桥英语发音词典](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/english/dictionary)之外，还包括 [牛津词典](https://www.oed.com/)、[朗文当代英语词典](https://www.ldoceonline.com/)、[柯林斯 COBUILD](https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english)，等等。
## 1.3.1. 地方口音（Accents）
The phonetic notation system employed in this tutorial is the D.J. Phonetic transcription, introduced by [Daniel Jones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)) who published his *English Pronouncing Dictionary* (EPD) back in 1917 and continually revised it over many years. Eventually handed over to Cambridge University Press, its name was revamped as the [*Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary*](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/english/dictionary) (CEPD). The CEPD rolled out its 15^th^ edition sometime around 1997 with an additional set of symbols for American pronunciations tallied along. Now on par with their [18^th^](https://www.cambridge.org/gb/cambridgeenglish/catalog/dictionaries/cambridge-english-pronouncing-dictionary-18th-edition) outing, this sitely respin of Jone's original framework has been widely adopted amongst major authoritative dictionaries - including but not limited to [Oxford](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/english/dictionary)'s upstanding series or [*Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English*](https://www.ldoceonline.com/) down till [*Collins COBUILD*](https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english).
英语也许是地球上地方口音最多的语言，除了英式英语和美式英语之外，还有加大大英语、澳大利亚英语、苏格兰英语、新西兰英语…… 即便是在英国之内，也有很多不同的口音，甚至伦敦南部和东部的口音都有可能并不相同。同样，在美国，各个区域的口音事实上有很大区别。
令人遗憾的是，英文的音标并不统一，乃至于各个词典即便是采用同样名称的音标体系 —— IPA（国际音标），或者 D.J. 音标 —— 各自也有一些细微差异，比如，有的用 `əʊ` 有的用 `oʊ`，或者，有的用 `ɒ` 有的用 `ɔ`……
![accents-eight](/images/accents-eight.png)
It's unfortunate that the phonetic notation for English is inconsistent. Even dictionaries using the same system, like the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) or Daniel Jones' Phonetics, display slight differences. For instance, some use `əʊ` while others use `oʊ`, or some use `ɒ` yet others prefer `ɔ`... It's quite a conundrum.
上图来自于 [www.soundcomparisons.com](https://www.soundcomparisons.com/#/en/Englishes/map/eight/Lgs_Sln) —— 不妨去体会一下同一个英语单词在各地不同的口音……
比较幸运的是，大多数的音标标注差异集中在**元音**标记上，尤其是美式英语的元音 —— 所以也不算是太难掌握。
[Little Big Shots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Big_Shots) 节目组曾经请来一位苏格兰小朋友 *Oscar*，听听他是怎么说 *fish* 这个词把主持人差点搞疯的：
Luckily, the majority of phonetic notation differences are concentrated in *vowel* markings, especially American vowels, which makes it somewhat easier to master.
<video controls width="720"> <source src="/videos/LittleBigShots-Oscar.mp4" type="video/mp4"></source>Your browser does not support the video tag. </video>
关于美式发音的音标标注，可以大致总结为以下几点：
事实上，较重的地方口音甚至会令英语母语使用者都束手无策。[这个 Youtube 链接](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1jHfY0dDZxA)是 2019 年 10 月英国议会上演的一幕 —— 一位新西兰出生的议员死活听不懂他的苏格兰同事在说什么……
Here are some key points to take note of when it comes to phonetic representation of American English:
很多人在学英语的时候，对口音的选择异常纠结。其实，想想你最能最常听到的口音是什么就可以了 —— 显然，对绝大多数人来说，在这个视听媒体格外发达的时代，人们更常听到的可能是美式英语。
> - 短元音 `ʌ` 变得与 `ə` 非常接近，甚至常常直接被 `ə` 替代。比如，*but* `/bʌt/` 可能直接被标注为 `/bət/`。
> - The short vowel `ʌ` often sounds very similar to `ə` and is frequently replaced by it in transcription. For example, *but* `/bʌt/` would be transcribed as `/bət/`.
> - 长短元音不统一使用 `ː` 区分，而是`ə/ɑ`、`ə/ɜ`、`ɚ/ɝ`、 `e/æ`、`ɪ/i`、`ʊ/u`、`ɒ/ɔ`。
> - Long and short vowels are differentiated not by using `ː`, but by pairs such as `ə/ɑ`, `ə/ɜ`, `ɚ/ɝ`, `e/æ`, `ɪ/i`, `ʊ/u`, `ɒ/ɔ`.
> - 短元音 `e` 有时用 `ɛ` 标注。
> - The short vowel `e` is sometimes transcribed as `ɛ`.
> - 短元音 `ə` ，由于经常附带着 `ʳ` 音，常常被标注为 `ɚ`；不带有 `ʳ` 音的时候，常常被标注为 `ɜ`。
> - The short vowel `ə`, often accompanied by the rhotic `ʳ`, is commonly transcribed as `ɚ`. When the rhotic sound is absent, `ə` is often transcribed as `ɜ`.
> - 长元音 `əː`，同样由于经常附带着 `ʳ` 音，常常被标注为 `ɝ`。
> - The long vowel `əː`, due to its frequent association with `ʳ`, is generally transcribed as `ɝ`.
> - `ə` 结尾的双元音，都用 `r`：`ɪə` ⭢ `ɪr`，`eə` ⭢ `er`，`ʊə` ⭢ `ʊr`。
> - Diphthongs ending in `ə` are represented with `r`: `ɪə` becomes `ɪr`, `eə` becomes `er`, `ʊə` becomes `ʊr`.
> - 非重音音节中的 `ɪ` 可能会被标注为 `ə`。
> - The `ɪ` in unstressed syllables may be transcribed as `ə`.
> - 短元音 `ɒ` 在美式发音中读作 `ɑ`，也如此标注，比如，*hot* `/hɑt/` —— `ɑ` 比 `ʌ/ə` 略长一些，比 `ɑr` 短。
> - The short vowel `ɒ` is pronounced as `ɑ` in American English and is transcribed as such. For example, *hot* is transcribed as `/hɑt/`. `ɑ` is slightly longer than `ʌ/ə` but shorter than `ɑr`.
> - `t` 的弹舌音用 `t̬` 标注。
> - The flapping `t` sound in American English is represented by `t̬`.
## 1.3.2. D.J. 音标（D.J. Phonetics）
在上一节中，大致讲解英语音素的时候，所采用的实际上是 D.J. 音标体系 —— 不过，它最初是为了标注英式（标准）英语而设计的，无法完整标注美式英语发音。
[Daniel Jones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)) 于 1917 年发布 *English Pronouncing Dictionary* (*EPD*, 英语发音词典)，并在其后的多年里反复修订。最终它被剑桥接手，更名为 *Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary* (*CEPD*, 剑桥英语发音词典) 。*CEPD*于 1997 年发布第 *15* 版，与**国际音标**（IPA）统一，增加了一些符号用以同时标注美式发音。目前的 *CEPD* 已经是[第 *18* 版](https://www.cambridge.org/gb/cambridgeenglish/catalog/dictionaries/cambridge-english-pronouncing-dictionary-18th-edition)。
## 1.3.3. 国际音标（IPA）
国际音标（IPA）最初由法国语言学家 Paul Passy 带领的一群英法语言教师于 1886 年设计并提出。此后经过多次改版，以下是 2020 年的 IPA 官方字符集：
![IPA_chart_2020.svg](/images/IPA_chart_2020.svg)
CEPD (18^th^) 实际上采用的就是 IPA。在我们的教程里，采用的音标，是 [Cambridge Pronouncing Dictionary](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/) 的**美式注音**。音标符号详解可以参照 CEPD 的官方链接：
> https://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.html
## 1.3.4. 美式英语音素及音标（American Phonemes and Phonetics）
英语的地方口音绝大多数体现在**元音**的不同。
以下是美式英语的元音（及其重新分类）：
| Monophthongs | | Diphthongs |
| ---------------- | ------------------------ | --------------------------------------- |
| Short vowels | `ʌ` `e` `ə` `ɚ` `ɪ` `ʊ` | |
| Half long vowels | `æ` `i` `ɑ` | |
| Long vowels | `ɑː` `ɝː` `iː` `uː` `ɔː` | `aɪ` `eɪ` `ɔɪ` `aʊ` `oʊ` `er` `ɪr` `ʊr` |
不太一样的地方主要在于：
* `æ` 在美式英语里是**半长元音**，即，比短元音长一点，比长元音短一点。式比较一下 *apple* `/ˈæp·əl/` 的英式发音<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-uk="/audios/apple-uk.mp3"></span>和美式发音<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/apple-us.mp3"></span>。
* `ə`
* 非儿化短元音 `ə`，在美式英语中，被称作 *schwa*，非重读央元音 —— 即，只出现在非重读音节中。比如，*ago* `/əˈɡoʊ/` 或者 *develop* `/dɪˈvel·əp/`。在 CEPD 里，非重读音节的 `ɪ` 往往都直接被标注为 `ə`。比如，*individual*，英式音标为 `/ˌɪn·dɪˈvɪdʒ·u·əl/`, 但，美式音标是 `/ˌɪn·dəˈvɪdʒ·u·əl/`。
* `ə` 儿化音版本被标注为 `ɚ`。比如，*harder* `/hɑːrdɚ/` 或者 *teacher* `/ˈtiː·tʃɚ/`。
* `ə` 对应的长元音 `əː` 写作 `ɜː`；但，在美式英语中，这个长元音总是被儿化，所以写作 `ɝː`。比如，*server* `/ˈsɝː·vɚ/` 或者 *worker* `/ˈwɝː·kɚ/`。
* `i`，在英语中其实有三个版本，短元音 `ɪ`，半长元音 `i`，以及长元音 `iː`。半长元音 `i` 常常出现在词汇末尾，比如，*city* `/ˈsɪt·i/`, *happy* `/ˈhæp·i/`。
* 在美式英语中，短元音 `ɒ` 被读成半长元音 `ɑ`，在 CEPD 里干脆加上了长元音符号，比如，hot `/hɑːt/`。而长元音 `ɔː` 也常常被标注为 `ɑː`，比如，*water* `/ˈwɑː·t̬ɚ/`。但，美国人也不会把 *war* 读成 `/wɑːr/`，还是读作 `/wɔːr/` —— 只是比英式发音多了一个儿化的习惯。
* 在美式英语中，双元音 `eə`、`ɪə`、`ʊə` 中的 `ə` 都会被儿化，所以都直接相应地被标注成了 `er`、`ɪr`、`ʊr`。
* 另外，英式英语中还有两个**三元音**: `aɪə` 比如，*fire* `/faɪə/`；*hour* `/aʊə/`。在美式英语中，这两个三元音被简化为双元音的更为明显的儿化音，`aɪə` → `aɪr`，比如，*fire* `/faɪr/`, *hour* `/aʊr/`。
来自辅音的主要区别是 `t`。
在美式英语里，家在两个元音之间的 `t` 会被浊化，形成弹舌音，用 `t̬` 来标注，比如，*water*，英式发音是 `/ˈwɔː·tə/`，美式发音是 `/ˈwɑː·t̬ɚ/`。

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Note that `/ʌl/` doesn't have the schwa (`ə`) sound added, since `/ʌ/` and `ə` are already very similar. For instance, *ultimate* `/ˈəltəmət/`, or *result* `/rɪˈzəlt/`. Also, pay attention to `/iːl/` in natural speech. For example, while *reveal* is indeed pronounced as `/rɪˈviːəl/`, with the schwa sound, *revealing* is pronounced as `/rɪˈviːlɪŋ/`, without the schwa. This change might be due to the fact that the `l` sound has been moved to form a third syllable with `ɪŋ` as `/lɪŋ/`.
`l` 在语言学里有个专门的称呼，叫做**音节辅音**，就是因为它的发声动作如果完整的话，前面就会自然附加着一个轻微的元音 `ə` 的音色。比如，*little* `/ˈlɪtl̩/` —— `l` 下面多出的那一个点 `l̩` 的意思是说，这里的 `l̩` 是个**音节辅音**，相当于 `/ᵊl/`…… 当然，很多词典干脆就直接标注成了 `/ˈlɪtəl/`
`l` 在语言学里有个专门的称呼，叫做**音节辅音**，就是因为它的发声动作如果完整的话，前面就会自然附加着一个轻微的元音 `ə` 的音色。比如，*little* `/ˈlɪtl̩/` —— `l` 下面多出的那一个点 `l̩` 的意思是说，这里的 `l̩` 是个**音节辅音**，相当于 `/ᵊl/`…… 当然，很多词典干脆就直接标注成了 `/ˈlɪtᵊl/` 或者 `/ˈlɪtəl/`
In linguistics, the letter `l` has a particular name - it's called a *syllabic consonant*. This is because when it is fully pronounced, a subtle vowel sound `ə` naturally attaches to the front of it. For example, in the word *little* `/ˈlɪtl̩/`, the dot under the `l` (`l̩`) indicates that this `l` is a *syllabic consonant*. It's equivalent to `/ᵊl/`. And many dictionaries simply denote it as `/ˈlɪtəl/`.

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# Sounds of American English
# Drafts
## Introduction
辅音 `t` 在美式英语中有个弹舌音变体，`t̬`，例如，*cutting* `/ˈkʌt̬·ɪŋ/`。
## 1. English Alphabet
The consonant `t` has a flapping variant, `t̬`, as in the word *cutting*, pronounced `/ˈkʌt̬·ɪŋ/`.
Modern English is composed of *26* letters, each with both *uppercase* and *lowercase* forms. English stands out among European languages for not using [diacritics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diacritic), which are special marks added to letters to alter their pronunciation or meaning, such as *â*, *é* or *ç*, etc.
辅音 `l` 是音节辅音（[2.2.14](2.2.14-lr)），有时会在之前自然附带一个 `ə` 音，可能被标注为 `əl`、`ᵊl`（上标式 `ə`） 或者 `l̩`（注意 `l` 下的那根小竖线）。
[NATO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO) has a system that uses common words to identify each letter, which is particularly helpful for military and civil aviation, emergency serivces, radio or phone communication, and many others to avoid confusion when spelling out words.
The consonant `l` is a syllabic consonant ([2.2.14](2.2.14-lr)), which sometimes naturally comes with an `ə` sound before it. This may be annotated as `əl`, `ᵊl` (with a superscript `ə`), or `l̩` (note the small vertical line underneath the `l`).
| Letter | Pronunciation | NATO Phonetic Alphabet |
| --------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| **A** *a* | `/eɪ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/a-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/a-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Alpha* `/ˈæl.fə/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Alpha-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Alpha-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **B** *b* | `/biː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/b-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/b-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Bravo* `/ˈbrɑː.voʊ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Bravo-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Bravo-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **C** *c* | `/siː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/c-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/c-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Charlie* `/ˈtʃɑːr.liː/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Charlie-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Charlie-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **D** *d* | `/diː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/d-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/d-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Delta* `/ˈdɛl.tə/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Delta-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Delta-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **E** *e* | `/iː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/e-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/e-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Echo* `/ˈɛk.oʊ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Echo-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Echo-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **F** *f* | `/ɛf/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/f-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/f-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Foxtrot* `/ˈfɔːks.trɒt/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Foxtrot-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Foxtrot-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **G** *g* | `/dʒiː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/g-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/g-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Golf* `/ɡɑːf/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Golf-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Golf-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **H** *h* | `/eɪtʃ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/h-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/h-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Hotel* `/hoʊˈtɛl/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Hotel-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Hotel-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **I** *i* | `/aɪ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/i-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/i-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *India* `/ˈɪn.di.ə/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/India-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/India-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **J** *j* | `/dʒeɪ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/j-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/j-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Juliet* `/ˈdʒuːliːˌɛt/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Juliet-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Juliet-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **K** *k* | `/keɪ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/k-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/k-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Kilo* `/ˈkiː.loʊ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Kilo-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Kilo-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **L** *l* | `/ɛl/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/l-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/l-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Lima* `/ˈliː.mə/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Lima-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Lima-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **M** *m* | `/ɛm/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/m-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/m-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Mike* `/maɪk/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Mike-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Mike-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **N** *n* | `/ɛn/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/n-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/n-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *November* `/noʊˈvɛm.bər/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/November-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/November-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **O** *o* | `/oʊ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/o-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/o-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Oscar* `/ˈɑːs.kɑːr/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Oscar-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Oscar-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **P** *p* | `/piː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/p-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/p-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Papa* `/pəˈpɑː/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Papa-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Papa-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **Q** *q* | `/kjuː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/q-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/q-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Quebec* `/kəˈbɛk/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Quebec-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Quebec-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **R** *r* | `/ɑːr/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/r-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/r-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Romeo* `/ˈroʊ.miːˌoʊ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Romeo-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Romeo-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **S** *s* | `/ɛs/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/s-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/s-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Sierra* `/siˈɛr.ə/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Sierra-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Sierra-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **T** *t* | `/tiː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/t-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/t-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Tango* `/ˈtæŋ.ɡoʊ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Tango-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Tango-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **U** *u* | `/juː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/u-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/u-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Uniform* `/ˈjuː.nɪ.fɔːrm/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Uniform-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Uniform-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **V** *v* | `/viː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/v-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/v-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Victor* `/ˈvɪk.tər/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Victor-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Victor-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **W** *w* | `/ˈdʌbl̩juː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/w-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/w-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Whiskey* `/ˈwɪs.kiː/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Whiskey-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Whiskey-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **X** *x* | `/ɛks/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/x-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/x-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *X-ray* `/ˈɛks.reɪ/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/X-ray-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/X-ray-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **Y** *y* | `/waɪ/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/y-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/y-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Yankee* `/ˈjæŋ.kiː/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Yankee-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Yankee-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
| **Z** *z* | `/ziː/` <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/z-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/z-us-jen.mp3"></span> | *Zulu* `/ˈzuː.luː/`<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Zulu-us-guy.mp3" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Zulu-us-jen.mp3"></span> |
6 个基础元音中，`ə` 和 `ɪ` 有相对更多的变体（*allophone*）：
In the 6 basic vowels, `ə` and `ɪ` have relatively more variants, or *allophones*:
In British, letter *z* is pronounced as `/zed/`。
* `ɪ`：
* 除了长元音版本 `iː` 之外，还有一个半长版本 `i`，例如 *happy* `/ˈhæp·i/`[^1]；
* In addition to the long vowel version `i`ː, there's also a semi-long version `i`, as in *happy* `/ˈhæp·i/`.
* `ə`：
* 长元音版本 `əː` 在 CEPD[^2] 中被标注为 `ɜː`，例如 *bird* `/bɜːd/` (UK)
* The long vowel version `əː` is annotated as `ɜː` in the CEPD[^2], like in *bird* `/bɜːd/` (UK).
* 儿化的短元音 `ə` 被标注为 `ɚ`，例如 *mother* `/ˈmʌð·ɚ/`；
* The rhotacized short vowel `ə` is annotated as `ɚ`, as in *mother* pronounced `/ˈmʌð·ɚ/`.
* 儿化的长元音 `əː` 被标注为 `ɝː` 例如 *bird* `/bɝːd/` (US)
* The rhotacized long vowel `əː` is annotated as `ɝː`, like in *bird* pronounced `/bɝːd/` (US).
> [!Note]
>
> 1. The synthesized audio files primarily utilizes OpenAI's TTS (Text-to-Speech) and Microsoft Edge's TTS. The blue speaker icon<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us="/audios/us/Alpha-us-guy.mp3"></span>represents a male voice, whereas the brown speaker icon<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-uk="/audios/us/Alpha-us-jen.mp3"></span>signifies a female voice.
> 2. The IPA ([International Phonetic Alphabet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet)) notation used for phonetic transcription is generated by OpenAI's ChatGPT, which may occasionally make mistakes that need to be corrected.
英式英语中的 `eə`、`ɪə`、`ʊə`，在美式英语中的发音末尾都有儿化音，因此被标注为：`er`、`ɪr`、`ʊr`。
## 2. Phonemes
The sounds represented by `eə`, `ɪə`, and `ʊə` in British English are rhotacized in American English, which is why they are notated as: `er`, `ɪr`, `ʊr`.
In natural speech, indivisible sound segments are referred to as *phonemes*. English language categorizes these phonemes into two main types: *vowels* and *consonants*.
另外，英式英语中还有两个三元音: `aɪə` 比如，*fire* `/faɪə/`；*hour* `/aʊə/`。在美式英语中，这两个三元音被简化为两个双元音的更为明显的儿化音，`aɪə` → `aɪr`，比如，*fire* `/faɪr/`, *hour* `/aʊr/`。
> [!Note]
>
> The phonetic notation system employed in this tutorial is the D.J. Phonetic transcription, introduced by [Daniel Jones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)) who published his *English Pronouncing Dictionary* (EPD) back in 1917 and continually revised it over many years. Eventually handed over to Cambridge University Press, its name was revamped as the [*Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary*](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/english/dictionary) (CEPD). The CEPD rolled out its 15^th^ edition sometime around 1997 with an additional set of symbols for American pronunciations tallied along. Now on par with their [18^th^](https://www.cambridge.org/gb/cambridgeenglish/catalog/dictionaries/cambridge-english-pronouncing-dictionary-18th-edition) outing, this sitely respin of Jone's original framework has been widely adopted amongst major authoritative dictionaries - including but not limited to [Oxford](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/english/dictionary)'s upstanding series or [*Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English*](https://www.ldoceonline.com/) down till [*Collins COBUILD*](https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english).
Furthermore, in British English, there are two triphthongs: `aɪə` as in *fire* pronounced `/faɪə/` and `aʊə` as in *hour* pronounced `/aʊə/`. In American English, these two triphthongs simplify into more apparent rhotacized diphthongs, `aɪə` → `aɪr`, for example, *fire* pronounced `/faɪr/`, and *hour* pronounced `/aʊr/`.
### 2.1 Vowels
[^1]: The middle dot `·` in `/ˈhæp·i/` is an annotation of syllable division. A dot `.` is used in CEPD, but for clearer html rendering, we use a raised one here.
[^2]: CEPD, Cambridge English Pronunciation Dictionary, https://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.html.
English approximately has *20* vowels.
Vowels can be classified into *long* and *short* vowels, or alternatively, they can also be grouped as *monophthongs* and *diphthongs*.
| Monophthongs | | Diphthongs |
| ----- | --------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------- |
| Short vowels | `ʌ`, `e`, `ə`, `ɪ`, `ʊ`, `ɒ` | |
| Long vowels | `ɑː`, `æ`, `əː`, `iː`, `uː`, `ɔː` | `aɪ`, `eɪ`, `ɔɪ`, `aʊ`, `oʊ`, `eə`, `ɪə`, `ʊə` |
比较幸运的是，大多数的音标标注差异集中在**元音**标记上，尤其是美式英语的元音 —— 所以也不算是太难掌握。
English may well be the language with the most regional accents on Earth, leading to frequent debate over the actual number of vowel sounds. Take American English for instance, `ʌ` is pronounced as `ə`, effectively reducing one vowel sound compared to British English. Additionally, some linguists argue that `eə`, `ɪə`, and `ʊə` shouldn't count as independent diphthongs but *rhotic* versions of existing vowels: `e`, `ɪ` and `ʊ`, thus stripping off three more distinct vowels...
Luckily, the majority of phonetic notation differences are concentrated in *vowel* markings, especially American vowels, which makes it somewhat easier to master.
A prominent feature of American English is the rhotacized `ə`. The IPA developed two specific marks to note this, with `ɚ` corresponding to `əʳ`, and `ɝ` to `əːʳ`. Bear in mind not all instances of `ə` will be subjected to rhotacization; certain words like *focus* retain their original pronunciations as `/ˈfoʊkǝs/` rather than veering towards a rendition such as `/ˈfoʊkɚs/`.
关于美式发音的音标标注，可以大致总结为以下几点：
## 2.2 辅音
Here are some key points to take note of when it comes to phonetic representation of American English:
英文大约 28 个辅音。
> - 短元音 `ʌ` 变得与 `ə` 非常接近，甚至常常直接被 `ə` 替代。比如，*but* `/bʌt/` 可能直接被标注为 `/bət/`。
> - The short vowel `ʌ` often sounds very similar to `ə` and is frequently replaced by it in transcription. For example, *but* `/bʌt/` would be transcribed as `/bət/`.
> - 长短元音不统一使用 `ː` 区分，而是`ə/ɑ`、`ə/ɜ`、`ɚ/ɝ`、 `e/æ`、`ɪ/i`、`ʊ/u`、`ɒ/ɔ`。
> - Long and short vowels are differentiated not by using `ː`, but by pairs such as `ə/ɑ`, `ə/ɜ`, `ɚ/ɝ`, `e/æ`, `ɪ/i`, `ʊ/u`, `ɒ/ɔ`.
> - 短元音 `e` 有时用 `ɛ` 标注。
> - The short vowel `e` is sometimes transcribed as `ɛ`.
> - 短元音 `ə` ，由于经常附带着 `ʳ` 音，常常被标注为 `ɚ`；不带有 `ʳ` 音的时候，常常被标注为 `ɜ`。
> - The short vowel `ə`, often accompanied by the rhotic `ʳ`, is commonly transcribed as `ɚ`. When the rhotic sound is absent, `ə` is often transcribed as `ɜ`.
> - 长元音 `əː`，同样由于经常附带着 `ʳ` 音，常常被标注为 `ɝ`。
> - The long vowel `əː`, due to its frequent association with `ʳ`, is generally transcribed as `ɝ`.
> - `ə` 结尾的双元音，都用 `r`：`ɪə` ⭢ `ɪr`，`eə` ⭢ `er`，`ʊə` ⭢ `ʊr`。
> - Diphthongs ending in `ə` are represented with `r`: `ɪə` becomes `ɪr`, `eə` becomes `er`, `ʊə` becomes `ʊr`.
> - 非重音音节中的 `ɪ` 可能会被标注为 `ə`。
> - The `ɪ` in unstressed syllables may be transcribed as `ə`.
> - 短元音 `ɒ` 在美式发音中读作 `ɑ`，也如此标注，比如，*hot* `/hɑt/` —— `ɑ` 比 `ʌ/ə` 略长一些，比 `ɑr` 短。
> - The short vowel `ɒ` is pronounced as `ɑ` in American English and is transcribed as such. For example, *hot* is transcribed as `/hɑt/`. `ɑ` is slightly longer than `ʌ/ə` but shorter than `ɑr`.
> - `t` 的弹舌音用 `t̬` 标注。
> - The flapping `t` sound in American English is represented by `t̬`.
| 爆破音 | 清辅音 | `p`, `t`, `k` |
| ------ | ------ | ----------------------- |
| | 浊辅音 | `b`, `d`, `g` |
| 摩擦音 | 清辅音 | `f`, `s`, `θ`, `ʃ`, `h` |
| | 浊辅音 | `v`, `z`, `ð`, `ʒ`, `r` |
| 破擦音 | 清辅音 | `tʃ`, `tr`, `ts` |
| | 浊辅音 | `dʒ`, `dr`, `dz` |
| 鼻音 | 浊辅音 | `m`, `n`, `ŋ` |
| 边辅音 | 浊辅音 | `l` |
| 半元音 | 浊辅音 | `j`, `w` |
### `ʌ`
*but* `/bʌt/`, *chum* `/tʃʌm/`, *cut* `/kʌt/`, *drum* `/drʌm/`, *duck* `/dʌk/`, *fun* `/fʌn/`, *gun* `/ɡʌn/`, *hut* `/hʌt/`, *jump* `/dʒʌmp/`, *luck* `/lʌk/`, *mud* `/mʌd/`, *nut* `/nʌt/`, *pup* `/pʌp/`, *run* `/rʌn/`, *shut* `/ʃʌt/`, *sun* `/sʌn/`, *thug* `/θʌɡ/`, *thus* `/ðʌs/`, *truck* `/trʌk/`, *tut* `/tʌt/`, *vulgar* `/ˈvʌl·ɡɚ/`, *won* `/wʌn/`, *yum* `/jʌm/`
### `e`
*bet* `/bet/`, *check* `/tʃek/`, *desk* `/desk/`, *dress* `/dres/`, *fed* `/fed/`, *get* `/ɡet/`, *hen* `/hen/`, *jet* `/dʒet/`, *kept* `/kept/`, *let* `/let/`, *met* `/met/`, *net* `/net/`, *pet* `/pet/`, *red* `/red/`, *set* `/set/`, *shed* `/ʃed/`, *test* `/test/`, *theft* `/θeft/`, *trek* `/trek/`, *vet* `/vet/`, *wet* `/wet/`, *yet* `/jet/`, *zed* `/zed/`
### `ə`
*ago* `/əˈɡoʊ/`, *button* `/ˈbʌt̬·ən/`, *develop* `/dɪˈvel·əp/`, *dramatic* `/drəˈmæt̬·ɪk/`, *expression* `/ɪkˈspreʃ·ən/`, *onion* `/ˈʌn·jən/`, *realize* `/ˈriː·ə·laɪz/`, *standard* `/ˈstæn·dɚd/`, *system* `/ˈsɪs·təm/`, *telegram* `/ˈtel·ə·ɡræm/`
注意：没有儿化的 `ə` 在美式英语中，被称作 *schwa*，非重读央元音 —— 即，只出现在非重读音节中。
### `ɚ`
*danger* `/ˈdeɪn·dʒɚ/`, *freezer* `/ˈfriː·zɚ/`, *harder* `/hɑːrdɚ/`, *larger* `/lɑːrdʒɚ/`, *paper* `/ˈpeɪ·pɚ/`, *server* `/ˈsɝː·vɚ/`, *teacher* `/ˈtiː·tʃɚ/`, *water* `/ˈwɑː·t̬ɚ/`, *worker* `/ˈwɝː·kɚ/`
注意：儿化的短元音 `ɚ` 只出现在非重读音节中。
### `ɪ`
*bit* `/bɪt/`, *chip* `/tʃɪp/`, *did* `/dɪd/`, *drill* `/drɪl/`, *gig* `/ɡɪɡ/`, *gin* `/dʒɪn/`, *his* `/hɪz/`, *if* `/ɪf/`, *kick* `/kɪk/`, *lip* `/lɪp/`, *milk* `/mɪlk/`, *nil* `/nɪl/`, *pick* `/pɪk/`, *rip* `/rɪp/`, *ship* `/ʃɪp/`, *sit* `/sɪt/`, *thick* `/θɪk/`, *this* `/ðɪs/`, *tip* `/tɪp/`, *trick* `/trɪk/`, *vivid* `/ˈvɪv·ɪd/`, *wit* `/wɪ/`, *zip* `/zɪp/`
### `ʊ`
*book* `/bʊk/`, *cook* `/kʊk/`, *foot* `/fʊt/`, *good* `/ɡʊd/`, *put* `/pʊt/`, *should* `/ʃʊd/`, *wood* `/wʊd/`
### `æ`
*add* `/æd/`, *bad* `/bæd/`, *cat* `/kæt/`, *chat* `/tʃæt/`, *dad* `/dæd/`, *dad* `/dæd/`, *drag* `/dræɡ/`, *jack* `/dʒæk/`, *fat* `/fæt/`, *gag* `/ɡæɡ/`, *has* `/hæz/`, *lab* `/læb/`, *mad* `/mæd/`, *nap* `/næp/`, *pad* `/pæd/`, *rat* `/ræt/`, *shall* `/ʃæl/`, *task* `/tæsk/`, *thank* `/θæŋk/`, *that* `/ðæt/`, *trash* `/træʃ/`, *vast* `/væst/`, *wag* `/wæɡ/`, *zag* `/zæɡ/`

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