chore: Update repository URL to https://github.com/zuodaotech/everyone-can-use-english
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Lyric
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# 2.3.3 顿与停（Stop and Pause）
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在讨论**连接**（*linking*）之前有必要先研究一下**顿**（*stop*）与**停**（*pause*）—— 这一步至关重要、不可或缺。（为了便于理解，在中文表述中，我们用 “停顿” 表示 “顿”，用 “暂停” 表示 “停”。）
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在讨论**连接**（_linking_）之前有必要先研究一下**顿**（_stop_）与**停**（_pause_）—— 这一步至关重要、不可或缺。（为了便于理解，在中文表述中，我们用 “停顿” 表示 “顿”，用 “暂停” 表示 “停”。）
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Before delving into the concepts of *linking* words, it's essential to first understand *stops* and *pauses*, which is a crucial step and can't be overlooked.
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Before delving into the concepts of _linking_ words, it's essential to first understand _stops_ and _pauses_, which is a crucial step and can't be overlooked.
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在自然语流中，多音节词汇里常常夹杂着**停顿**（*stop*）—— 这是很多初学者干脆感受不到的，所以，他们不是忽略了那些停顿，而是可能压根就不知道某些地方竟然存在停顿。
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在自然语流中，多音节词汇里常常夹杂着**停顿**（_stop_）—— 这是很多初学者干脆感受不到的，所以，他们不是忽略了那些停顿，而是可能压根就不知道某些地方竟然存在停顿。
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In natural speech flow, many polysyllabic words are often peppered with *breaks*. This is something many beginners might not even notice, not because they ignore these breaks, but because they might not realize there are supposed to be breaks in certain places.
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In natural speech flow, many polysyllabic words are often peppered with _breaks_. This is something many beginners might not even notice, not because they ignore these breaks, but because they might not realize there are supposed to be breaks in certain places.
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一个常见的停顿来自于**重读音节**。当我们想要强调某个音节的时候，为了能把它读得相对较重，在此之前往往需要**停顿**一下 —— 做个准备。
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When we want to emphasize a syllable, we often need to *stop* briefly before it to prepare for the pronunciation.
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When we want to emphasize a syllable, we often need to _stop_ briefly before it to prepare for the pronunciation.
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比如，你可以试着读一下 *absolutely* <span class="pho alt">ˌæbsəˈluːtli</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/absolutely-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/absolutely-us-female.mp3"></span>…… 为了把 <span class="pho alt">luː</span> 这个音节读成**重音**（顺带说，这是个长元音），你可能就会不由自主地在发出 <span class="pho">sə</span> 之后略微**停顿**一下…… 拿之前的例子 *individual* <span class="pho alt">ˌɪndəˈvɪdʒuəl</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/individual-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/individual-us-female.mp3"></span> 再试一下，若是在 <span class="pho alt">vɪ</span> 之前略微**停顿**一下，就能相对更为轻松地将它读成**重音**。
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比如，你可以试着读一下 _absolutely_ <span class="pho alt">ˌæbsəˈluːtli</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/absolutely-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/absolutely-us-female.mp3"></span>…… 为了把 <span class="pho alt">luː</span> 这个音节读成**重音**（顺带说，这是个长元音），你可能就会不由自主地在发出 <span class="pho">sə</span> 之后略微**停顿**一下…… 拿之前的例子 _individual_ <span class="pho alt">ˌɪndəˈvɪdʒuəl</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/individual-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/individual-us-female.mp3"></span> 再试一下，若是在 <span class="pho alt">vɪ</span> 之前略微**停顿**一下，就能相对更为轻松地将它读成**重音**。
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Take the word *absolutely* <span class="pho alt">ˌæbsəˈluːtli</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/absolutely-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/absolutely-us-female.mp3"></span> for instance. To *stress* the <span class="pho alt">luː</span> syllable, which is long, you might find yourself involuntarily stopping slightly after pronouncing <span class="pho">sə</span>. The same practice applies to the word *individual* <span class="pho alt">ˌɪndəˈvɪdʒuəl</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/individual-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/individual-us-female.mp3"></span>, which you've practiced before. A brief stop before <span class="pho alt">vɪ</span> makes it relatively easier to stress.
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Take the word _absolutely_ <span class="pho alt">ˌæbsəˈluːtli</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/absolutely-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/absolutely-us-female.mp3"></span> for instance. To _stress_ the <span class="pho alt">luː</span> syllable, which is long, you might find yourself involuntarily stopping slightly after pronouncing <span class="pho">sə</span>. The same practice applies to the word _individual_ <span class="pho alt">ˌɪndəˈvɪdʒuəl</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/individual-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/individual-us-female.mp3"></span>, which you've practiced before. A brief stop before <span class="pho alt">vɪ</span> makes it relatively easier to stress.
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另外一个更为常见的**停顿**相对比较微妙，它就在那里，可不仅听不到，也看不到。
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Another frequent stop is more subtle. It's there, but you can't see or hear it.
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比如，在 *hotdog* 这个词里，<span class="pho">t</span> 的声音是听不到的，但，它的舌尖动作却是**完整**的，所以，能够听到的不是 <span class="pho alt">ˈhɑtˌdɔg</span>，也不是 <span class="pho alt">ˈhɑˌdɔg</span>，而是 <span class="pho alt">ˈhɑ·ˌdɔg</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/hotdog-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/hotdog-us-female.mp3"></span> —— 这里的 <span class="pho">·</span> 表示因 <span class="pho">t</span> 的舌尖动作完整却没有发出任何声音而产生的**停顿**。你可以再试试 *network* <span class="pho alt">ˈnetˌwərk</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/network-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/network-us-female.mp3"></span> 这个词 —— 这里面的 <span class="pho">t</span> 也是同样的机制。（注意，也有人用喉塞音读这里的 <span class="pho">t</span>）
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比如，在 _hotdog_ 这个词里，<span class="pho">t</span> 的声音是听不到的，但，它的舌尖动作却是**完整**的，所以，能够听到的不是 <span class="pho alt">ˈhɑtˌdɔg</span>，也不是 <span class="pho alt">ˈhɑˌdɔg</span>，而是 <span class="pho alt">ˈhɑ·ˌdɔg</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/hotdog-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/hotdog-us-female.mp3"></span> —— 这里的 <span class="pho">·</span> 表示因 <span class="pho">t</span> 的舌尖动作完整却没有发出任何声音而产生的**停顿**。你可以再试试 _network_ <span class="pho alt">ˈnetˌwərk</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/network-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/network-us-female.mp3"></span> 这个词 —— 这里面的 <span class="pho">t</span> 也是同样的机制。（注意，也有人用喉塞音读这里的 <span class="pho">t</span>）
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Consider the word *hotdog*. You can't hear the <span class="pho">t</span>, but the articulation is complete. So instead of hearing <span class="pho alt">ˈhɑtˌdɔg</span> or <span class="pho alt">ˈhɑˌdɔg</span>, you hear <span class="pho alt">ˈhɑ·ˌdɔg</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/hotdog-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/hotdog-us-female.mp3"></span> – the <span class="pho">·</span> represents a stop created by the <span class="pho">t</span> sound's complete articulation without any audible output. Try the same with *network* <span class="pho alt">ˈnetˌwərk</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/network-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/network-us-female.mp3"></span> – the <span class="pho">t</span> applies the same principle. (Note, some people pronounce the <span class="pho">t</span> in this context using a *glottal stop*.)
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Consider the word _hotdog_. You can't hear the <span class="pho">t</span>, but the articulation is complete. So instead of hearing <span class="pho alt">ˈhɑtˌdɔg</span> or <span class="pho alt">ˈhɑˌdɔg</span>, you hear <span class="pho alt">ˈhɑ·ˌdɔg</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/hotdog-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/hotdog-us-female.mp3"></span> – the <span class="pho">·</span> represents a stop created by the <span class="pho">t</span> sound's complete articulation without any audible output. Try the same with _network_ <span class="pho alt">ˈnetˌwərk</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/network-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/network-us-female.mp3"></span> – the <span class="pho">t</span> applies the same principle. (Note, some people pronounce the <span class="pho">t</span> in this context using a _glottal stop_.)
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这类**停顿**（*stop*），也叫**塞音**，最常见的有以下几种：
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这类**停顿**（_stop_），也叫**塞音**，最常见的有以下几种：
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There are several types of *stops* in English:
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There are several types of _stops_ in English:
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> * 唇塞音：<span class="pho">p</span>、<span class="pho">b</span>、<span class="pho">m</span>、<span class="pho">f</span>、<span class="pho">v</span> —— *I just cannot hel**p** myself*. <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/sentence-just-cannot-alloy.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/sentence-just-cannot-nova.mp3"></span> 第四个单词 <span class="pho alt">help</span> 末尾的 <span class="pho">p</span> 就是一个唇塞音。
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> * **Bilabial stop**: As in *I just cannot hel**p** myself* <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/sentence-just-cannot-alloy.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/sentence-just-cannot-nova.mp3"></span>, the <span class="pho">p</span> in <span class="pho alt">help</span> is a labial stop.
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> * 齿塞音：<span class="pho">θ</span>、<span class="pho">ð</span> —— *I wish the pa**th** to success was smoother.*<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/sentence-wish-the-alloy.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/sentence-wish-the-nova.mp3"></span> 第四个单词 <span class="pho alt">pæθ</span> 末尾的 <span class="pho">θ</span> 就是一个齿塞音。
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> * **Dental stop**: <span class="pho">θ</span>, <span class="pho">ð</span> - As in *I wish the *pa**th*** to success was smoother*<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/sentence-wish-the-alloy.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/sentence-wish-the-nova.mp3"></span>, the final <span class="pho">θ</span> in <span class="pho alt">pæθ</span> is a dental stop.
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> * 龈塞音: <span class="pho">t</span>、<span class="pho">d</span> —— *He trie**d** to discuss his idea with his boss.*<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/sentence-tried-to-alloy.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/sentence-tried-to-nova.mp3"></span> 第二个单词 <span class="pho alt">traɪd</span> 末尾的 <span class="pho">d</span> 就是一个龈塞音。
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> * **Alveolar stop**: <span class="pho">t</span>, <span class="pho">d</span> - As in *He *trie**d*** to discuss his idea with his boss*<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/sentence-tried-to-alloy.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/sentence-tried-to-nova.mp3"></span>, where the final <span class="pho">d</span> in <span class="pho alt">traɪd</span> is an alveolar stop.
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> * 喉塞音：<span class="pho">k</span>, <span class="pho">g</span>, <span class="pho">t</span> —— IPA 里用 <span class="pho">ʔ</span>标注。 *I don't thin**k** that is true.*<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/sentence-don't-think-alloy.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/sentence-don't-think-nova.mp3"></span> 第三个单词 *think* 末尾的 <span class="pho">k</span> 就是一个喉塞音，<span class="pho alt">θɪŋʔ ðæt</span>。 *uh-oh* <span class="pho alt">ɑʔoʊ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/Uh-Oh.mp3"></span> 是另外一个例子…… <span class="pho">t</span> 也有可能用这个喉塞音，比如，*utmost* <span class="pho alt">ˈʌʔˌmoʊst</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/utmost-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/utmost-us-female.mp3"></span>，或者 <span class="pho alt">ˈneʔwɝːk</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/network-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/network-us-female.mp3"></span>。
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> * **Glottal stop**: <span class="pho">k</span>, <span class="pho">g</span>, <span class="pho">t</span> - In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), the glottal stop is represented by the symbol <span class="pho">ʔ</span>. Take the sentence *I don't think that's true*<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/sentence-don't-think-alloy.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/sentence-don't-think-nova.mp3"></span> for example. At the end of the word *think*, there's a glottal stop, as in <span class="pho alt">θɪŋʔ ðæt</span>. Another example is the word *uh-oh* <span class="pho alt">ɑʔoʊ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/Uh-Oh.mp3"></span>. Also, <span class="pho">t</span> can sometimes be replaced with a glottal stop, as in *utmost* <span class="pho alt">ˈʌʔˌmoʊst</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/utmost-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/utmost-us-female.mp3"></span> or *network* <span class="pho alt">ˈneʔwɝːk</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/network-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/network-us-female.mp3"></span>.
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> - 唇塞音：<span class="pho">p</span>、<span class="pho">b</span>、<span class="pho">m</span>、<span class="pho">f</span>、<span class="pho">v</span> —— _I just cannot hel**p** myself_. <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/sentence-just-cannot-alloy.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/sentence-just-cannot-nova.mp3"></span> 第四个单词 <span class="pho alt">help</span> 末尾的 <span class="pho">p</span> 就是一个唇塞音。
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> - **Bilabial stop**: As in _I just cannot hel**p** myself_ <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/sentence-just-cannot-alloy.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/sentence-just-cannot-nova.mp3"></span>, the <span class="pho">p</span> in <span class="pho alt">help</span> is a labial stop.
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> - 齿塞音：<span class="pho">θ</span>、<span class="pho">ð</span> —— _I wish the pa**th** to success was smoother._<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/sentence-wish-the-alloy.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/sentence-wish-the-nova.mp3"></span> 第四个单词 <span class="pho alt">pæθ</span> 末尾的 <span class="pho">θ</span> 就是一个齿塞音。
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> - **Dental stop**: <span class="pho">θ</span>, <span class="pho">ð</span> - As in *I wish the *pa**th\*** to success was smoother\*<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/sentence-wish-the-alloy.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/sentence-wish-the-nova.mp3"></span>, the final <span class="pho">θ</span> in <span class="pho alt">pæθ</span> is a dental stop.
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> - 龈塞音: <span class="pho">t</span>、<span class="pho">d</span> —— _He trie**d** to discuss his idea with his boss._<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/sentence-tried-to-alloy.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/sentence-tried-to-nova.mp3"></span> 第二个单词 <span class="pho alt">traɪd</span> 末尾的 <span class="pho">d</span> 就是一个龈塞音。
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> - **Alveolar stop**: <span class="pho">t</span>, <span class="pho">d</span> - As in *He *trie**d\*** to discuss his idea with his boss\*<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/sentence-tried-to-alloy.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/sentence-tried-to-nova.mp3"></span>, where the final <span class="pho">d</span> in <span class="pho alt">traɪd</span> is an alveolar stop.
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> - 喉塞音：<span class="pho">k</span>, <span class="pho">g</span>, <span class="pho">t</span> —— IPA 里用 <span class="pho">ʔ</span>标注。 _I don't thin**k** that is true._<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/sentence-don't-think-alloy.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/sentence-don't-think-nova.mp3"></span> 第三个单词 _think_ 末尾的 <span class="pho">k</span> 就是一个喉塞音，<span class="pho alt">θɪŋʔ ðæt</span>。 _uh-oh_ <span class="pho alt">ɑʔoʊ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/Uh-Oh.mp3"></span> 是另外一个例子…… <span class="pho">t</span> 也有可能用这个喉塞音，比如，_utmost_ <span class="pho alt">ˈʌʔˌmoʊst</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/utmost-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/utmost-us-female.mp3"></span>，或者 <span class="pho alt">ˈneʔwɝːk</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/network-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/network-us-female.mp3"></span>。
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> - **Glottal stop**: <span class="pho">k</span>, <span class="pho">g</span>, <span class="pho">t</span> - In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), the glottal stop is represented by the symbol <span class="pho">ʔ</span>. Take the sentence _I don't think that's true_<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/sentence-don't-think-alloy.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/sentence-don't-think-nova.mp3"></span> for example. At the end of the word _think_, there's a glottal stop, as in <span class="pho alt">θɪŋʔ ðæt</span>. Another example is the word _uh-oh_ <span class="pho alt">ɑʔoʊ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/Uh-Oh.mp3"></span>. Also, <span class="pho">t</span> can sometimes be replaced with a glottal stop, as in _utmost_ <span class="pho alt">ˈʌʔˌmoʊst</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/utmost-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/utmost-us-female.mp3"></span> or _network_ <span class="pho alt">ˈneʔwɝːk</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/network-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/us/network-us-female.mp3"></span>.
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不管是哪一种，大多都是因为之前的一个辅音**虽然并未发出声音却动作完整**造成的。
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Regardless of the type, most of such stops occur when a previous consonant is fully articulated without actually producing sound.
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除了**停顿**（*stop*）之外，一句话可能会被分为若干个**意群**（*meaning group*），意群之间总是有着明显的**暂停**（*pause*）。
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除了**停顿**（_stop_）之外，一句话可能会被分为若干个**意群**（_meaning group_），意群之间总是有着明显的**暂停**（_pause_）。
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|
||||
Apart from *stops*, a sentence can be divided into several *meaning groups*, each separated by an obvious *pause*.
|
||||
Apart from _stops_, a sentence can be divided into several _meaning groups_, each separated by an obvious _pause_.
|
||||
|
||||
先听听这段话的录音[^1]：
|
||||
|
||||
Check out the recording of this stentence:
|
||||
|
||||
> *Yet, it is a fact of life that an unlettered peasant is considered ignorant.* <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/yet-it-is-a-fact.mp3"></span>
|
||||
> _Yet, it is a fact of life that an unlettered peasant is considered ignorant._ <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/yet-it-is-a-fact.mp3"></span>
|
||||
>
|
||||
> 以下是这段音频的 *Waveform*（波谱）和 *Pitch Contour*（音高变化）：
|
||||
> 以下是这段音频的 _Waveform_（波谱）和 _Pitch Contour_（音高变化）：
|
||||
>
|
||||
> Here are the Waveform and Pitch Contour for this audio clip:
|
||||
>
|
||||
> 
|
||||
>
|
||||
> * *Pitch Contour* 截图来自学习辅助工具 [Enjoy](https://github.com/xiaolai/everyone-can-use-english)。
|
||||
> * The screenshot of the Pitch Contour is from the learning aid App [Enjoy](https://github.com/xiaolai/everyone-can-use-english).
|
||||
> - _Pitch Contour_ 截图来自学习辅助工具 [Enjoy](https://github.com/zuodaotech/everyone-can-use-english)。
|
||||
> - The screenshot of the Pitch Contour is from the learning aid App [Enjoy](https://github.com/zuodaotech/everyone-can-use-english).
|
||||
|
||||
在 Waveform 里我们可以清楚地看到，这句话里有两处明显的停顿（用 <span class="pho">|</span> 标注）：
|
||||
|
||||
In the Waveform, we can clearly see two significant pauses (marked with <span class="pho">|</span>) in this sentence:
|
||||
|
||||
> *Yet, | it is a fact of life | that an unlettered peasant is considered ignorant.* <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/yet-it-is-a-fact.mp3"></span>
|
||||
> _Yet, | it is a fact of life | that an unlettered peasant is considered ignorant._ <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us/yet-it-is-a-fact.mp3"></span>
|
||||
|
||||
**停顿**（*stop*）与**暂停**（*pause*）可以用**可否换气**进行区分：
|
||||
**停顿**（_stop_）与**暂停**（_pause_）可以用**可否换气**进行区分：
|
||||
|
||||
The distinction between *stop* and *pause* can be clarified by whether or not one has the opportunity to take a breath:
|
||||
The distinction between _stop_ and _pause_ can be clarified by whether or not one has the opportunity to take a breath:
|
||||
|
||||
> * 音节之间的**停顿**（*stop*）通常是不用甚至不能换气的；
|
||||
> * A *stop* usually occurs between syllables where you don't need to, and often can't, take a breath;
|
||||
> * 意群之间的**暂停**（*pause*）是可以换气的 —— 当然若非必要也可以不换气；
|
||||
> * A *pause* typically happens between meaning groups, where you have the opportunity to take a breath - although it's not always necessary to do so.
|
||||
> - 音节之间的**停顿**（_stop_）通常是不用甚至不能换气的；
|
||||
> - A _stop_ usually occurs between syllables where you don't need to, and often can't, take a breath;
|
||||
> - 意群之间的**暂停**（_pause_）是可以换气的 —— 当然若非必要也可以不换气；
|
||||
> - A _pause_ typically happens between meaning groups, where you have the opportunity to take a breath - although it's not always necessary to do so.
|
||||
|
||||
[^1]: This audio clip is extracted from the Audible edition of *Knowledge and Decisions* by Thomas Sowell.
|
||||
[^1]: This audio clip is extracted from the Audible edition of _Knowledge and Decisions_ by Thomas Sowell.
|
||||
|
||||
Reference in New Issue
Block a user