keep updated

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/0-intro.md

@@ -1,7 +1,13 @@
-# 美式英语语音教程
+# 美式英语语音基础教程
 
 自然语音中最基础的、不可分割的单位是**音素**（*phonemes*）；音素构成**音节**（*syllables*）；音节构成**词汇**（*words*）；词汇构成**意群**（*thought groups*）；意群构成**句子**（*sentences*)；句子构成**语篇**（*discourse*）—— 而一方说出的语篇（无论长短、无论完整与否）要被对方听到并理解，这样才能启动**对话**（*dialogue*）
 
+The most fundamental and indivisible unit in natural speech is the *phoneme*; phonemes form *syllables*; syllables form *words*; words form *thought groups*; thought groups form *sentences*; sentences form *discourse* - and a discourse spoken by one party (regardless of its length or completeness) needs to be heard and understood by the other party to initiate a *dialogue*.
+
 音素的准确与否，长期被认为是最重要的基础，甚至被认为是最关键的决定性因素。然而，在音素准确与否之上，更为重要的是说话的方式，即，语音的**韵律**（*prosody*）和**节奏**（*rhythm*）。所以，我们的教程将以**音节**为中心，主要关注**韵律**和**节奏** —— 当然，我们也只能从音素讲起。
 
+The accuracy of phonemes has long been considered the most critical foundation, even regarded as the key determinant. However, more important than phoneme accuracy is the way of speaking, that is, the *prosody* and *rhythm* of speech. Therefore, our tutorial will center on *syllables*, primarily focusing on *prosody* and *rhythm*—of course, we have to start with phonemes.
+
 另外，这是一个**零基础教程**，所以，完全不用担心自己基础差。在教程里，我们从音素开始讲起，而音素，根据定义，就是自然语音的最基础内容 —— 实在不可能有什么比它更基础的了 —— 所以，在此之前不需要有任何预备知识。
+
+Moreover, this is a tutorial for beginners, meaning there's no need to worry if you feel that you lack the basics. We will start from phonemes, which, by definition, are the most fundamental elements of spoken language. There's nothing more basic than this, therefore, *there's no need for any prior knowledge to start this course*.

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/10-3.1.6-ʊ-uː.md

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+# 3.1.6. `ʊ/uː`
+
+这一对元音，地球上的任何语言都用，并且还几乎是一模一样地用，所以，大家读起来都不费劲。只有一个细节值得注意，英文里长元音 `uː` 相对于短元音 `ʊ` 嘴形缩得更小，嘴唇相对更加略微凸出。
+
+This pair of vowels is used in virtually every language on Earth, and it's used in almost exactly the same way, making it easy for everyone to pronounce. There's just one detail worth noting: in English, the long vowel `uː` requires a smaller mouth shape than the short vowel `ʊ`, and lips should protrude slightly more.

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/11-3.1.7-ɒ-ɔː.md

@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+# 3.1.7. `ɔ/ɔː`
+
+这一对元音在发声的时候，嘴唇动作非常明显，要在嘴唇形成一个小的圆形之后才开始发音。
+
+When pronouncing this pair of vowels, the lip movement is very noticeable. It's important to form a small circle with lips before beginning to vocalize.
+
+![vowels-mouth-shape-ɒ-ɔ](/images/vowels-mouth-shape-ɒ-ɔ.svg)
+
+与英音相比，美音的 `ɒ` 会读得更长一点，听起来更像 `ɑ`。比如，*dog*, 英音是 `/dɒg/`, 美音却是 `/dɔːg/`；而 *God*, 英音是 `/gɒd/`，美音同样相对更长一点，`/gɔːd/` —— 有些词典（比如[朗文词典](https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/dog)）为此直接添加了长音符号 `ː`。
+
+Compared to British English, the American pronunciation of `ɒ` is slightly *longer* and sounds more like `ɑ`. For instance, for the word *dog*, in British English, it's pronounced as `/dɒg/`, while in American English, it's pronounced as `/dɔːg/`. Similarly, for *God*, it's `/gɒd/` in British English, but in American English it's elongated to `/gɔːd/`. Some dictionaries, like the [Longman Dictionary](https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/dog), directly add the lengthening symbol `ː` for this reason.
+
+另外，在重读音节里，`ɔː` 可能会被美国人儿化，读成 `ɔr` ，更像是双元音 `ɔər`。
+
+Additionally, in *stressed* syllables, `ɔː` might be rhotacized by Americans to sound like `ɔr`, resembling the diphthong `ɔər`.
+
+> [!Info]
+> D.J. 音标最初的时候短元音用 `ɔ`，长元音用 `ɔː`；但后来短元音 `ɔ` 开始使用笔划上闭口的 `ɒ`，而长元音依然使用带着长音符号且笔划上开口的 `ɔː`。
+>  
+> Initially, in the D.J. phonetic alphabet, short vowels used `ɔ`, and long vowels used `ɔː`. But later, the short vowel `ɔ` started being represented with a closing stroke on the upper part as `ɒ`, while the long vowel continued to use `ɔː` with the lengthening symbol and an open stroke on top.

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/12-3.1.8-aɪ-ʊə.md

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+# 3.1.8. aɪ, eɪ, ɔɪ, aʊ, əʊ, eə, ɪə, ʊə
+
+亚洲语系基本上都没有和英文一样的双元音。韩文日文的母音和中文的韵母虽然都有少数由两个基础音素构成的组合音，但，它们和英文的双元音不同的地方在于，它们都是和其它韵母或者母音等长的，而不是像英文双元音的长度那样几乎是短元音的两倍。
+
+比如，当中国人说 “太累了” 的时候，“太”（tài）这个字的 “韵母” 就很接近英文的双元音 aɪ；“累”（lèi）这个字的韵母就很接近英文的双元音 eɪ…… 但，它们很不一样，英文的双元音就是更长。
+
+英文的双元音，都是两个元音的组合。它们都是从第一个元音滑向第二个元音，所以，它们从长度上来看，相当于是长元音；节奏在感觉上大抵是乐谱里的 “一拍里均放着三个等长音符的三连音”，前一个基础音素更长一些，后一个基础音素相对较短。
+
+在读它们的时候，同样要注意口腔内气流共鸣位置，要尽量靠后，但更为重要的是，要把它们读得足够长 —— 几乎12要占用两个元音的发声时长，并且足够饱满。
+
+亚洲人常常会把所有双元音都读成单元音的长度。不仅如此，他们也常常会不由自主地把很多长元音也读成相应更短的版本。这是因为在亚洲语系往往以字（而不是词）为最小单位，而后，每个字都是单音节，每个音节里的元音（比如，中文中的 “韵母”）都是等长的。
+
+另外，有 3 个双元音里有 ʊ 这个音，aʊ, əʊ, ʊə —— 若是不配合着嘴唇的动作，就读不准它们。而剩下的 5 个双元音，aɪ, eɪ, ɔɪ, eə, ɪə 都是在嘴唇几乎不动的情况下完成的，全靠喉咙部位的动作。

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/4-3.1-vowels.md

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+# 3.1. 元音（Vowels）
+
+英文总计 6 个基础元音，分别是 `ʌ`、`e`、`ə`、`ɪ`、`ʊ`、`ɒ` —— 这 6 个短元音就好像是 “根” 一样。剩下的 14 个元音要么是它们略有变化的更长版本，即，长元音  ——  `ɑː, æ, əː, iː, uː, ɔː`。要么是它们的组合版本，即，双元音 —— `aɪ, eɪ, ɔɪ, aʊ, əʊ, eə, ɪə, ʊə`。
+
+In English, there are 6 basic vowels: `ʌ`, `e`, `ə`, `ɪ`, `ʊ`, and `ɒ`. Think of these 6 short vowels like the *roots* of a tree. The remaining 16 vowels are either slightly modified, longer versions of these - the *long* vowels, which are `ɑː, æ, əː, iː, uː, ɔː`; or, they are combinations of these basic sounds, known as *diphthongs* - `aɪ, eɪ, ɔɪ, aʊ, əʊ, eə, ɪə, ʊə`.
+
+元音的关键在于它们的**长短**。搞错元音的长短，一方面可能会造成错误或者理解困难。更为重要的是另外一方面 —— 会造成**节奏**混乱。
+
+The crux of vowels lies in their *duration*. If you mess up the length of vowels, not only could it lead to errors or difficulties in understanding, but more importantly, it could disrupt the *rhythm*.
+
+由于双元音由两个基础元音构成，所以**双元音**的长度与**长元音**相当。于是，英文**音节**的发声总体上倾向于比其它语言更长，因为 20 个元音中只有 6 个是短的，与之相对的，有 14 个是长的。这是一个相当显著的差异 —— 尤其在与亚洲语言相比的时候尤为明显，因为在大多数亚洲语言中元音（可能被称为韵母、母音）总是等长的，没有长短之分。
+
+Since diphthongs are composed of two basic vowels, their length is equivalent to that of long vowels. As a result, English syllables tend to be pronounced longer overall than in other languages, given that only 6 out of 20 vowels are short, while the remaining 14 are long. This is a rather noticeable difference, especially when compared to Asian languages, where vowels always have equal length, with no distinction between long and short.

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/4-vowels.md

@@ -1,13 +0,0 @@
-# 2.1 元音（Vowels）
-
-人类的语音在最底层是相通的 —— 最明显的例证就是所有的语言都一样，不仅都以元音为核心，并且，都有大致相同的基础元音音素，比如 `ɑ`、`i`、`ʊ`、`e`、`ɔ`…… 比如，日文就恰好只有这五个母音。英文还另外有一个 `ə`；而韩文比英文还要多出一个 `ɤ`（韩文字符为 `ᅳ`） —— 这个音中文也有，比如，在 “思念” 这个词中， “思”（`sī`）的韵母就是这个音。
-
-元音发声时，气流从肺部通过声门冲击声带，使其均匀震动，而后通过起着共鸣器作用的口腔，无阻力地呼出。生成不同元音的主要器官是嘴唇，也是婴幼儿在学说话时所能观察到的唯一发声器官。
-
-以下是  5 个英文基础元音发声时的口型（嘴唇形状）：
-
-![Vowels lip shape](/images/vowels-lip-shape.svg)
-
-当然，除了嘴唇的形状之外，影响元音发声的器官还有舌面的位置、软腭的动作。不过，由于人类语言的相通属性，人们在这些基础元音的发声上都没有任何困难。
-
-另外，英文的 `ə` 口型与 `ɪ` 接近。而 `æ` 的口型比 `e` 的大一点、比 `ɑ` 的小一点。

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/5-3.1.1-lips.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+# 3.1.1. 唇形（Lips' shape）
+
+人类的语音在最底层是相通的 —— 最明显的例证就是所有的语言都一样，不仅都以元音为核心，并且，都有大致相同的基础元音音素，比如 `ɑ`、`i`、`ʊ`、`e`、`ɔ`…… 日文就恰好只有这五个母音。英文还另外有一个 `ə`；而韩文比英文还要多出一个 `ɤ`（韩文字符为 `ᅳ`） —— 这个音中文也有，比如，在 “思念” 这个词中， “思”（`sī`）的韵母就是这个音。
+
+Human speech, at its core, is universal - the clearest example being that all languages share certain fundamental tenets. Every language places vowels at their heart and maintains a similar basic vowel phonemes such as `ɑ`, `i`, `ʊ`, `e`, `ɔ`, amongst others. Take Japanese for instance; it uses precisely these five vowels only. English includes one more: `ə`. Korean even outpaces English by adding another one —`ɤ` (represented in Hangul as `ᅳ`). Interestingly enough you can find this sound in Mandarin Chinese too — like in `sī` of "思念" `sīniàn`, meaning to miss or remember.
+
+元音发声时，气流从肺部通过声门冲击声带，使其均匀震动，而后通过起着共鸣器作用的口腔，无阻力地呼出。
+
+For vowel pronunciation, the airflow from your lungs strikes against your vocal cords through the glottis. This produces a consistent vibration that is amplified as it travels unimpeded through your mouth - the resonator cavity - before being expelled freely.
+
+生成不同元音的主要器官是嘴唇，这也是婴幼儿在学说话时所能观察到的唯一发声器官。张嘴的另外一个器官是下巴，下巴拉开，口型变大。
+
+Notably, a prime organ involved here: lips - the only visible speech articulator observable when infants are learning to speak. Another organ that opens the mouth is the low jaw, which, when pulled apart, enlarges the shape of the mouth.
+
+以下是  5 个基础元音发声时的口型（嘴唇位置）：
+
+Here are the mouth shapes (or, lips positions) during enunciation of five basic vowels:
+
+![Vowels mouth shape](/images/vowels-mouth-shape.svg)
+
+当然，除了嘴唇的形状之外，影响元音发声的器官还有舌面的位置、软腭的动作。不过，由于人类语言的相通属性，人们在这些基础元音的发声上都没有任何困难。
+
+Certainly, besides the mouth, other articulators influencing vowel pronunciation include where tongue lies and what's happening with soft palate. But thanks to universal linguistic attributes in humans, no one really struggles when it comes down to these basic vowels.
+
+另外，英文的 `ə` 口型与 `ɪ` 接近；而 `æ` 的口型比 `e` 的大一点、比 `ɑ` 的小一点。
+
+Moreover, regarding English phonetics: the mouth shape for `ə` is similar to that for `ɪ`, whereas for `æ`, a slightly larger opening is formed than when saying `e`, but smaller one compared with pronouncing `ɑ`.

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/6-3.1.2-ʌ-ɑː.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+# 3.1.2. `ʌ/ɑː`  
+
+从唇形上来看，`ʌ` 的唇形最小，`ɑ` 的唇形最大。
+
+In terms of mouth shape, the vowel sound `ʌ` requires the lips to be the most closed, while the vowel sound `ɑ` requires the lips to be the most open.
+
+![mouth shape of ʌ/ɑ](/images/vowels-mouth-ʌ-ɑ.svg)
+
+美国人会把 `ʌ` 读成 `ə`，比如，*but* 会被读成 `/bət/`。
+
+Americans often pronounce the `ʌ` sound as `ə`, turning words like *but* into `/bət/`.
+
+美国人还会再进一步，会把很多非重读音节内的元音简化为 `ə` —— 对此还有个专门的术语，将其称为 *schwa*。所以，*encourage* 这个词英国人和美国人读得不太一样，英国人会读作 `/ɪnˈkʌrɪdʒ/`，但，美国人却将其被读成 `/ɪnˈkərədʒ/` —— 不仅要将 `ʌ` 读成 `ə`，还要将 `i` 变成 *schwa*, `ə`……
+
+They even go a step further, simplifying many unstressed vowel sounds to `ə`, which is particularly referred to as a *schwa*. So, the word *encourage* is pronounced differently by Brits and Americans. Brits say `/ɪnˈkʌrɪdʒ/`, while Americans pronounce it as `/ɪnˈkərədʒ/`. In this case, not only is `ʌ` pronounced as `ə`, but the `i` also turns into a *schwa*, `ə`...
+
+长元音 `/ɑː/` 常常会被儿化 —— 加上一个卷舌音 `r`，所以很多美式词典干脆用 `ɑr` 替代 `ɑː`。比如，*card* `/kɑrd/`, *mark* `/mɑrk/`。
+
+The long vowel `/ɑː/` is often *rhotacized* - meaning it is followed by a `r` sound, which leads to many American Dictionaries replacing `ɑː` with `ɑr`. For example, *card* is pronounced as `/kɑrd/`, and *mark* as `/mɑrk/`.
+
+在英音中，长元音 `ɑː` 对应的短元音是 `ʌ`。但，在美音中，长元音 `ɑr` 对应的更短版本是 `ɑ`；不过，它实际上是英音中的短元音 `ɒ`。比如，*hot*, 英音是 `/hɒt/` ，美音是 `/hɑt/`。
+
+In British English, the short vowel matching the long vowel `ɑː` is `ʌ`. However, in American English, the short vowel corresponding to the long vowel `ɑr` is `ɑ`, which is actually similar to the British short vowel `ɒ`, yet a little bit longer. For instance, the word *hot* is pronounced `/hɒt/` in British English and `/hɑt/` in American English.
+
+这是美音比较特殊的地方，`ɑ` 要比短元音 `ə` 略长一点，但比真正的长元音 `ɑː` 要略短一点。
+
+Here's an interesting quirk of American English: the vowel sound `ɑ` is a tad longer than the short vowel `ə`, yet slightly shorter than the true long vowel `ɑː`.

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/7-3.1.3-e-æ.md

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+# 3.1.3. `e`/`æ`
+
+有些词典，针对美式发音，常常会用 `ɛ` 标注 `e` 这个音。
+
+Some dictionaries often use `ɛ` to annotate the American English sound of `e`.
+
+`æ` 相当于是 `e` 的更长版本。虽然 `æ` 后面没有长元音符号 `ː`，但它其实应该算作**长元音**。
+
+`æ` can be deemed as a more extended version of `e`. Even though there's no long vowel symbol `ː` following `æ`, it should be considered a **long vowel**.
+
+![mouth shape e-æ](/images/vowels-mouth-e-æ.svg)
+
+亚洲人在读这个音的时候，经过提醒，都能做到把嘴巴张得相对更大一点，但都会不由自主地将它读成更短的版本。
+
+When Asians try to pronounce this sound, once reminded, they can usually open their mouths a bit wider, but they often unconsciously make the sound shorter than it should be.
+
+`æ` 的发音有两个要点:
+
+> 1. 音拉长一点
+> 2. 嘴张大一点
+
+There are two key points to pronouncing `æ`:
+
+> 1. Stretch the sound a little longer
+> 2. Open your mouth wider
+
+其中，第一个要点相对更为重要。你可以多试试这两个词，*apple* `/ˈæpəl/`，*banana* `/bəˈnænə/`，并刻意把其中的 `æ` 拉得更长一点。
+
+The first point is relatively more important. Try saying these two words: *apple* `/ˈæpəl/` and *banana* `/bəˈnænə/`, and try intentionally stretching the `æ` a little longer.

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/8-3.1.4-ə-əː.md

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+# 3.1.4. `ə`/`əː`
+
+有些词典，常常会用 `ɜ` 标注 `ə` 这个音。另外，针对美式发音，`ər` 会被写成 `ɚ`，`əːr` 会被写成 `ɜː` 或者 `ɝ`。
+
+Some dictionaries often use `ɜ` to annotate the sound `ə`. Additionally, in American pronunciation, `ər` is written as `ɚ`, and `əːr` is written as either `ɜː` or `ɝ`.
+
+美国人在读这两个音的时候，常常会在末尾加上一个 `r`，但，也不是每一次都会加上 `r`。初学者容易矫枉过正，遇到这两个音就加上 `r`，比如，可能会把 *focus* 错读成 `/ˈfəʊkəʳs/`。
+
+When Americans pronounce these sounds, they *often* rhotacize, *but not always*. Beginners tend to overdo it and add a `r` whenever they encounter these sounds, for example, mispronouncing *focus* as `/ˈfəʊkərs/`.
+
+注意，在连贯的自然语音中，很多非重音音节的元音，都有被简化成 `ə`（*schwa*）的倾向，尤其是 `ɪ`。比如，*individual*, `ˌɪndɪˈvɪdʒjʊəl`，实际上会被读作 `ˌɪndəˈvɪdʒəwəl` —— `jʊ` 也变成了 `ə`，而后 `ʊ` 和 `ə` 之间有个加音 `w`（[2.2.13](https://1000h.org/sounds-of-english/25-jw.html)）…… 事实上，现在已经有很多词典干脆直接标注成了后者。
+
+Keep in mind that in fluent, natural speech, many unstressed vowel sounds in syllables are often simplified to `ə` (*schwa*), especially `ɪ`. For instance, *individual*  `/ˌɪndɪˈvɪdʒjʊəl/`, is often actually pronounced as `/ˌɪndəˈvɪdʒəwəl/` - `jʊ` also becomes `ə`, and there's a added `w` sound between `ʊ` and `ə`… In fact, many dictionaries now straightforwardly use the latter phonetic annotation.

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/9-3.1.5-ɪ-i:-i.md

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+# 3.1.5. `ɪ`/`iː`
+
+这一对元音，不只是长短的区别。
+
+This pair of vowels goes beyond just a difference of length.
+
+`ɪ` 并不是长元音 `iː` 的更短版本，它更像是 `e` 和 `i` 之间的一个音。听起来很像是更短版本的 `eɪ`，从唇形上来看`ɪ` 更接近 `e` 。
+
+The `ɪ` sound doesn't merely represent a shorter version of the long vowel `iː`. Instead, it seems to inhabit a space somewhere between `e` and `i`. It sounds more like a shorter rendition of `eɪ`, and visually speaking, the lip shape for `ɪ` is more akin to `e`.
+
+![vowels-mouth-shape-ɪ-i](/images/vowels-mouth-shape-ɪ-i.svg)
+
+另外，这个音实际上还有第 3 个版本，`ɪ` 在词汇末尾的时候，更倾向于像是 `iː` 这个长元音的更短版本，`i`，长度介于 `ɪ` 和 `iː` 之间。比如，*responsibility* `/riˌspɑnsəˈbɪləti/`.
+
+In addition, this sound actually has a third variation. When `ɪ` appears at the end of words, it tends to sound more like a shortened version of the long vowel `iː` — `i`, with a length somewhere in between `ɪ` and `iː`. For instance, in the word *responsibility `/riˌspɑnsəˈbɪləti/`.
+
+> [!Note]
+>
+> Daniel Jones 去世之后，Alfred C. Gimson 接受了他的工作，于 1977 年发布了 D.J. 音标第 14 版。引入 `ɪ ʊ ɒ ɜː` 等符号取代之前使用的 `i u ɔ əː`。1997 年，Peter Roach 再次接手，*English Pronouncing Dictionary* (*EPD*) 更名为 *Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary* (*CEPD*)，并发布 D.J. 音标第 15 版。除了引入能够标注美式发音的 `ɝ, ɚ, t̬` 之外， 还特意修改了词汇末尾的 `ɪ`，将其统一改成了 `i`。也就是说，*happy* 不再被标注为 `/ˈhæpɪ/`，而是 `/ˈhæpi/` 。与此同时，大多数词典所配的真人发音示范，都相应第做了修订。
+>
+> After Daniel Jones passed away, Alfred C. Gimson stepped into his shoes and published the 14^th^ edition of the D.J. phonetic symbols in 1977. He introduced symbols like `ɪ ʊ ɒ ɜː`, replacing the previously used `i u ɔ əː`. In 1997, Peter Roach took up the mantle. The *English Pronouncing Dictionary* (*EPD*) was renamed to the *Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary* (*CEPD*) and the 15^th^ edition of D.J. phonetic symbols was released. Not only were symbols `ɝ, ɚ, t̬` introduced to transcribe American pronunciations, but the `ɪ` at the end of words was universally changed to `i`. This means that *happy* is no longer transcribed as `/ˈhæpɪ/`, but as `/ˈhæpi/`. Along with this, most dictionaries also revised their live pronunciation demonstrations to match.