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Linux Filesystem Structure v0.99
Daniel Quinlan, quinlan@bucknell.edu
FSSTND (Filesystem Standard) Group
ABSTRACT
The open and distributed process in which the Linux
operating system has developed fosters rapid growth of the
operating system, applications, and integrated
distributions. This decentralized process, however, has
created a need for standardizing the structure of the
filesystem. This standard aims to define locations and
specifications for files and directories in Linux systems.
This will allow users, developers, and distributors to
assemble parts of the system from various sources that will
work together as smoothly as if they had been developed
under a monolithic development process. It will also make
general documentation less difficult, system administration
more consistent, and development of second and third party
packages easier.
- 1 -
Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
UNIX is a registered trademark of the X/Open Company, Ltd.
SunOS, Sun Microsystems, Sun RPC, and NFS are registered trademarks of
Sun Microsystems, Inc.
System V and SVR4 are trademarks of AT&T.
Novell and Novell NetWare are trademarks of Novell.
HP-UX is a trademark of Hewlett Packard.
Linux is not a trademark, and has no connection to UNIX.
All other copyrights are owned by their owners, unless specifically
noted otherwise. Use of a term in this document should not be regarded
as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.
Copyright (C) 1994 Daniel Quinlan <quinlan@bucknell.edu>
Permission is granted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this
standard provided the copyright and this permission notice are preserved
on all copies.
Permission is granted for FSSTND contributors and participants to copy
and distribute modified versions of this standard under the conditions
for verbatim copying for purposes of filesystem standardization
activities only, and subject to those restrictions listed below.
The following restrictions apply to reproducing of transmitting the
document in any form:
o All copies or portions thereof must identify the document's title
and section, and must be accompanied by this entire notice in a
prominent location.
o No portion of this document may be redistributed in any modified
or abridged form without the prior approval of the FSSTND
coordinator.
Other entities seeking permission to reproduce this document, or any
portion thereof, for standardization or other activities, must contact
the FSSTND coordinator for the appropriate license.
- 2 -
Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
Introduction
Status of the Standard
This proposed standard is being distributed to members of the Linux
community in order to solicit their reactions to the series of ideas,
concepts, and recommendations included within it. While the entire
content of this standard may not be identical to what every individual
desires, it has proven to be a good start towards solving many problems.
The guidelines in this standard are subject to change. Use of
information contained in this document is at your own risk.
Organization of the Standard
This standard is divided into 6 parts:
o General, including a statement of scope, problems, objectives, and
conformance requirements. (Section 1)
o The filesystem: a statement of some guiding principles.
(Section 2)
o The root directory. (Section 3)
o The /usr directory. (Section 4)
o The /var directory. (Section 5)
o Issues and Additional Rationale. (Section 6)
Conventions in this Document
Typographical Conventions:
Any filenames that lack a directory prefix ("/") and are not part of a
table are enclosed in single quotes.
Variable directory names (and email addresses) are preceded by "<" and
ended with ">". Variable substrings of directory names and filenames
are indicated by "*".
Note: the conventions used within this document will be extended and
clarified extensively in the next revision.
Brief glossary of terms:
distribution: a pre-packaged release of Linux. Examples include the
- 3 -
Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
MCC-Interim release, the Debian release, and the Slackware release.
filesystem: (1) a single formatted partition. (2) the entire directory
hierarchy.
implementation: a distribution, an application, or other item which
involves filesystem structure. (For instance, even documentation
could be considered an implementation.)
package: a group of files assembled for a specific function.
program: any binary or shell script that is executed within a shell.
root directory: the base of the directory tree and filesystem.
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
1. General
1.1. Scope
This standard defines a standard filesystem structure for Linux systems,
including the placement of directories, files, and the contents of some
system files.
The filesystem standard has been designed to be used by Linux
distribution developers, package developers, and system implementors.
However, it is intended to be a reference and not a tutorial on how to
manage a Linux filesystem or directory hierarchy.
These are some of the fundamental problems that originally motivated
this standardization effort:
o There was no single well accepted Linux directory structure.
Instead, there were many different ones, each being incompatible
with each other.
o In the most widely used filesystem hierarchies, the directories
were not well structured and differed gratuitously from more
modern directory structure "standards" (such as System V, SunOS,
BSD, and others).
o The filesystem was unfamiliar and discomforting to experienced
UNIX users and administrators who have experience on more
mainstream UNIX systems.
o The lack of regularity was also confusing for newcomers to Linux,
especially those coming from a non-UNIX background.
o Any incompatibilities between primary Linux distributions and
other software packages were typically solved by methods of a less
than appealing nature.
o Overall, symbolic links were used much too often within the
filesystem to fix problems. (However, there are times when
symbolic links need to be used to ensure backward compatibility or
to allow specific systems to have an individual filesystem
structure.)
It is to be expected that differences in opinion are to arise in any
standardization effort such as this one. However, these differences
should be overshadowed by the need for consensus and common practice
within the Linux community.
This filesystem standard was primarily developed within the FSSTND
mailing list and previously, the FSSTND channel of the Linux-activists
mailing list. Input and comments were received from a great number of
- 5 -
Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
Linux developers, noted Linux programmers, many system administrators,
and both experienced and novice users. Those volunteers who have
contributed extensively to this standard are listed at the end of this
document. This standard represents the consensus view of those and other
contributors.
This standard seeks to address these problems by describing a well
designed filesystem structure that the Linux community may voluntarily
follow. Although this standard is more comprehensive and complete than
any other previous attempt at standardization, it will probably never be
truly finished. The needs of the Linux community will continually
change in relation to emerging technology. It is also possible that
better solutions to filesystem problems could be discovered or that
these solutions will no longer be the best possible solutions. Because
of these reasons, the FSSTND group plans to release supplementary drafts
in addition to periodic updates to this document.
If you have any comments related to this standard, they are welcomed by
the FSSTND group. Suggestions for changes to this document should be
directed to the FSSTND mailing list, the FSSTND coordinator, or if you
prefer, any of the listed contributors. Typographical or grammatical
comments should be directed to the FSSTND coordinator.
Please do not send mail to the mailing list without first contacting the
FSSTND coordinator or a listed contributor. Improper messages will not
be well received on the mailing list.
Questions about how to interpret items in this document may occasionally
arise. If you have need for a clarification, please contact the FSSTND
coordinator. Since this standard represents the consensus of many
participants, it is important to make certain that any interpretation
also represents their collective opinion. Due to this reason, it may
not be possible to provide an immediate response unless the inquiry has
been the subject of previous discussion.
The FSSTND coordinator is Daniel Quinlan <quinlan@bucknell.edu>.
1.2. Specific Problems
Naturally, while defining a Linux filesystem structure, there were some
specific problems that we sought to correct. Here are some of the major
and well accepted ones:
o The primary binary directories, /bin and /usr/bin, do not have
well defined divisions between them. As a result, the
distribution of the binaries over these two directories varies
greatly between the Linux distributions.
o Including both binaries and configuration files in /etc makes it
more confusing and harder to maintain for inexperienced users or
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
system administrators with especially large systems.
o The division between what is a site-wide configuration file and
what is a machine-local configuration file is difficult to
establish. This makes determining whether a configuration file is
stored in /etc or /usr/etc difficult.
o The current implementation of /usr cannot be mounted read-only
because it contains variable files and directories that need to be
written to.
o In a networked environment it is desirable to serve software to
workstations via a NFS mounted filesystem. Such filesystems need
to be mounted read-only so that accidents or malice on one
workstation cannot damage the files on the server. This requires
identification and separation of files that a machine must write
to and of files that are specific to a single machine
o Linux is not well prepared for a network installation including
the possibility of a read-only /usr partition and diskless
workstations.
While these are some of the major problems we addressed, there were
numerous additional problems that needed to be solved. This standard
attempts to address many of those other problems, but there may be
something that was overlooked. If you wish to bring something to our
attention, please note there are some things that have been discussed at
length, but were not included in this standard.
1.3. Objectives
In trying to solve the above problems, several objectives were
identified that needed to be realized in addition to the more technical
matters. These goals comprise the correction of outstanding problems as
well as the validation of this standard.
o Solve the above problems while also limiting the possible
transition difficulties resulting from moving away from the former
de-facto standards.
o Gain approval of distributors, developers, and other important
people in the Linux community, as well as their suggestions.
o Provide a standard that all of the Linux community would choose to
follow because it will solve the above problems as well as provide
the most sensible structure for Linux's filesystem.
Some of these objectives have already been fully or partially met due to
the limited distribution of advance drafts to any developer who
requested one.
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
1.4. History and Progress
The original message that motivated this effort to restructure the Linux
filesystem was written by Olaf Kirsh <okir@monad.swb.de> on August 2,
1993, to the NORMAL channel of the Linux activists mailing list.
Soon thereafter, it was decided that the best possible way to accomplish
such a restructuring of the Linux filesystem would be to create a
mailing list for the purpose of trying to develop a consensus standard.
After a comprehensive discussion, with surprisingly few flames, a
preliminary draft was written. Then, with the help of several dedicated
people, the draft was finished and that resulting draft submitted to the
FSSTND channel for more discussion. The first draft was submitted to
the channel on September 18, 1993, by Daniel Quinlan.
As the discussion continued and early drafts of FSSTND recommendations
were developed further, contacts were established with accessible Linux
distributors who then offered their input and support to our effort.
Many Linux developers already agree that what we are doing is a good
thing. These are some of the developers who are trying to follow the
FSSTND standard [alphabetical order]:
o Debian Linux
Ian A. Murdock <imurdock@shell.portal.com>
o LILO
Werner Almesberger <almesber@nessie.cs.id.ethz.ch>
o Linux/PRO
Fred N. van Kempen <waltje@metallica.uwalt.nl.mugnet.org>
o Slackware Linux
Patrick J. Volkerding <volkerdi@mhd1.moorhead.msus.edu>
o TAMU Linux
Dave Safford <dave.safford@net.tamu.edu>
o util-linux packages
Rik Faith <faith@cs.unc.edu>
1.5. Conformance with this Document
There are three levels of compliance with this standard. A fully
conforming implementation shall meet all recommendations and
requirements in each section of this document. Sections or statements
that are marked optional are not required for full conformance. Partial
conformance indicates that an implementation conforms with a significant
subset of this document. The phrase "a significant subset" is
admittedly subjective, and in borderline cases, the concerned party
should contact the FSSTND coordinator. It is anticipated that some
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
variation will be tolerated in borderline cases.
Compatibility with this standard indicates that every file in the
distribution can be found at the point at which it would be found on a
fully compliant distribution, though this is not necessarily the file's
primary location.
In order to qualify as partially FSSTND conformant or FSSTND compatible,
however, an implementation must provide a list of all places at which it
and the FSSTND document differ, and a brief explanation of the reason
for this difference. This list shall also be provided to the FSSTND
mailing list or the FSSTND coordinator.
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
2. The Filesystem
The UNIX filesystem is characterized by:
o A hierarchical structure
o Consistent treatment of file data
o Protection of file data
This standard on the Linux filesystem follows the same basic principles
that most UNIX filesystems follow. Note that this standard does not
attempt to conform in every possible respect to any particular UNIX
system's implementation. However, many aspects of this standard are
based on ideas found in UNIX and other UNIX-like systems.
This is after careful consideration of other factors, including:
o Common (good) practices in the Linux community
o The existence of other filesystem structures
o Applicable standards
The directory hierarchy is separated into unsharable data, "/" (root),
and sharable data, "/usr". These two filesystems are divided according
to the following two data types: static data and variable data. Static
data includes binaries, libraries, documentation, and anything that does
not change without system administrator intervention. Variable data is
anything that does change without the system administrator's
intervention.
It is possible to define two orthogonal categories of file data:
sharable-unsharable and variable-static. Each hierarchy, / and the
traditional /usr, contains both static and variable data. The /usr
hierarchy is further defined as being sharable data and / as unsharable
data. For reasons mentioned above and below, we will redefine the
contents of /usr to be only shareable and static data, containing no
variable data.
Throughout this document, and in any well planned filesystem, an
understanding of these basic principles will help guide the structure
and lend it additional consistency.
The distinction between sharable and unsharable data is needed for
several reasons:
o In a networked environment (i.e. more than one host at a site),
there is a good deal of shareable data that can be shared between
different machines to save space and ease the task of maintenance.
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
o In a networked environment, certain filesystems contain
information specific to a single machine. Therefore these
filesystems cannot be shared (with NFS).
o The current implementation of /usr cannot be mounted read-only
because it contains variable files and directories that need to be
written to. This is a factor that must be addressed when /usr is
shared on a network or mounted read-only because of other
considerations (primarily safety).
The "sharable" factor can be extended in two directions:
o A /usr mounted (read-only) through the network (using NFS).
o A /usr mounted from read-only media. (You can think of that CD-
ROM drive as a networked, using postal mail, filesystem that you
are sharing with other Linux systems.)
The "static" versus "variable" factor dramatically affects the
filesystem in 2 major ways:
o Since / contains both variable and static data, it needs to be
mounted read-write.
o Since the traditional /usr contains both variable and static data,
and since we want to mount it read-only (see above), it is
necessary to provide a method to have /usr mounted read-only.
This is done through the creation of a /var hierarchy that is
mounted read-write (or is a part of another read-write partition,
such as /), taking over much of the /usr partition's traditional
functionality.
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
3. The root directory
This is the root directory structure. Enough data should be contained
in the root partition to boot, restore, recover, and/or repair the
system:
(1) To boot a system, enough must be present to mount /usr. This
includes utilities, configuration, boot loader information, and
other essential start-up data.
(2) To recover and/or repair a system, those utilities needed by an
experienced user to diagnose and reconstruct a damaged system
should be present on root.
(3) To restore a system, those utilities needed to restore a system
from backups (on floppy, tape, etc.) should be present on root.
The primary concern used to balance these desires (placing many things
in root) is the goal of keeping root as small as reasonably possible.
It is desirable to keep root small in terms of number of directories,
files, and disk space for several reasons:
(1) The root is often mounted from very small media. For example,
most Linux users install and do recovery by mounting root off a
RAM disk which is copied from a single 1.44M or 1.2M floppy disk.
(2) Root has many system-specific configuration files in it, a kernel
that is specific to the system, a different hostname, etc. This
means that root isn't always sharable between networked systems.
Keeping root small on networked systems minimizes the amount of
space lost on servers to unsharable files. It also allows
workstations with smaller local hard drives.
However, with diskless clients, this does not have to be entirely
the case, unless each client has a different root image.
(3) While you may have a large root partition, and may be able to
fill it to your heart's content, there will be people with
smaller partitions. If you have more files installed, you may
find incompatibilities with other systems using limited root
partitions. If you are a developer then you may be sharing this
problem with a large number of users.
(4) Disk errors on the root partition are a greater problem than
errors on any other partition. A small root partition is less
prone to corruption as the result of a system crash.
Since root is small and host-specific (due to the division between / and
/usr), this scheme necessitates a writeable root. However, this does
not necessitate a fully locally stored root. The root partition doesn't
have to be locally stored just to be system specific (i.e., root mounted
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
from a NFS root server.)
Software should never create or require special files or subdirectories
in the root directory. This structure provides more than enough
flexibility for any package. Any package that does occupy a directory
under root suffers from sheer arrogance.
/ : the root directory
|
|- bin : essential command binaries
|- boot : static files of the boot loader
|- dev : device files
|- etc : machine-local system configuration
|- home : user home directories
|- lib : shared libraries (libc.so.*, libm.so.*, and ld.so)
|- mnt : mount point of temporary partitions
|- proc : process information pseudo-filesystem
|- root : home directory for root
|- sbin : essential system binaries
|- tmp : temporary files
|- usr : second major permanent mount point
|- var : files that tend to grow or vary in size
+- {kernel image}
Following this section, each directory is presented in a separate
subdivision. /usr and /var are discussed in separate sections of this
document.
The root directory normally contains the current kernel image. The
kernel image name is locally configurable, but the name we suggest (that
has been used in recent Linux kernel sources) is `vmlinux'. This may or
may not be a (symbolic-)link to the actual file, possibly depending on
the system distribution used. Additional information on kernel
placement is located in the /boot section of the standard.
3.1. /bin : essential command binaries (for use by all users)
There should be no subdirectories within /bin.
The commands (static data) that are needed in single user mode by the
super-user (root) are stored in /bin. However, the commands in /bin are
for use by both root and other users. On the same note, the /bin
directory should not contain anything that is to be used only by root
for system administration.
All root-only binaries such as standard daemons, `init', `getty',
`update', et al. (previously found in /etc), shall now be placed in
/sbin or /usr/sbin depending on the necessity of the command. For
further discussion of the definition of what is essential in the
filesystem, please read section 6, "Issues and Additional Rationale".
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
Command binaries that are not essential enough to place into /bin should
be placed into /usr/bin, instead. Items that are only needed by non-
root users (`mail', `chsh', `passwd', et al.) are not vital to system
operation and should not be placed in the root partition.
REQUIRED files for /bin:
o general commands:
The following commands have been added because they are essential. A
few have been added because of their traditional placement in /bin.
{ arch, cat, chgrp, chmod, chown, cp, date, dd, df, dmesg, echo, ed,
false, kill, ln, loadkeys, login, ls, mkdir, mknod, more, mount,
mv, ps, pwd, rm, rmdir, setserial, sh, stty, su, sync, true,
umount, uname }
If /bin/sh is BASH, then /bin/sh should be a symbolic or hard link to
/bin/bash since bash behaves differently when called as `sh' or
`bash'. The same goes for `pdksh', which is often the /bin/sh on
install disks and such (link from /bin/sh to /bin/ksh). I personally
prefer the advantage of using a symbolic link in these cases, because
it allows users to easily see that /bin/sh is not a true Bourne
shell.
Both `[' and `test' are built into BASH, pdksh, zsh, recent Korn
shells, and essentially every Bourne shell replacement there is for
Linux. They should be placed into /usr/bin. (They must be included
as separate binaries with any Linux system attempting to comply with
the POSIX.2 standard.)
/bin/arch should produce the same output as "uname -m", specifically
"i386" or "i486" for Intel or Intel-compatible systems.
o restoration commands:
These commands have been added to make restoration of a system
possible (provided that / is intact).
{ tar, gzip, gunzip (link to gzip), zcat (link to gzip) }
If system backups are made with a package other than `gzip' and
`tar', then that administrator should include the minimal necessary
restoration components in the root partition. For instance, many
systems should include `cpio' as it is the next most commonly used
backup utility after tar. Conversely, if no restoration from the
root partition is ever expected, then these binaries may be omitted
(e.g., a ROM chip root, mounting /usr through NFS). If restoration
of a system is planned through the network, then ftp or tftp (along
with everything necessary to get a ftp connection) should be
available on the root partition.
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
o networking commands:
These are deemed the only necessary networking binaries that both
root and users will want or need to execute other than the ones in
/usr/bin or /usr/local/bin.
{ domainname, hostname, netstat, ping }
3.2. /boot : static files of the boot loader
This directory contains everything for boot except configuration files
and the map installer. In the simplest sense, /boot is for anything
which is used before the kernel execs /sbin/init. This includes saved
master boot sectors, sector map files, and anything else that is not
directly edited by hand. The boot loader program should be placed into
/sbin and configuration files for boot loaders into /etc.
More specifically, for LILO:
Old location New location
------------------------ -----------------
/etc/lilo/config.defines /etc/lilo.defines
/etc/lilo/config /etc/lilo.conf
/etc/lilo/disktab /etc/disktab
/etc/lilo/lilo /sbin/lilo
/etc/lilo/boot.NNNN /boot/boot.NNNN
/etc/lilo/part.NNNN /boot/part.NNNN
/etc/lilo/map /boot/map
/etc/lilo/*.b /boot/*.b
"*.b" are the first and second stage boot loader, plus all those chain
loaders. `QuickInst' (if it is included) should be placed into
/usr/sbin. (The `activate' command is left out of this scheme because
its future is uncertain at this time.) Use of LILO is not required for
conformance to this standard, but it is highly recommended.
Extra kernel images may be stored in /boot. The main kernel can either
be placed in / or in /boot according to preference of the administrator.
If placed in /, the kernel may also possibly be a symlink to a kernel
image in /boot. Note that the standard location for the kernel is still
in /.
3.3. /dev : Device files
/dev usually also contains a file, `MAKEDEV', a shell script designed to
create devices as needed. It also often contains a `MAKEDEV.local' for
any local-only devices.
`MAKEDEV' should have provisions for creating any device special file
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
listed in the major/minor numbers list, not just those that a particular
distribution installs.
Symbolic links in /dev should not be distributed with Linux systems, as
the local setup will often differ from that on the distributor's
development machine. Also, if a distribution install script configures
the symlinks at install time, these symlinks will often not get updated
if local changes are made in hardware. When used responsibly at a local
level, however, they can be put to good use.
This standard incorporates the Linux Device List which is maintained by
Rick Miller <rick@ee.uwm.edu>, the Linux Device Registrar. This is the
current standard that we strongly recommend using. It is available by
anonymous ftp at sunsite.unc.edu as "/pub/Linux/docs/hardware/DEVICES".
3.4. /etc : Machine-local system configuration
No binaries should go directly into /etc. Binaries that would have, in
the past, been found in /etc should now be placed in /sbin. This
includes such files as init, getty, and update. Binaries such as
hostname that are used by users as well as root should not be placed in
/sbin, but in /bin.
/etc : Machine-local system configuration
|
|- X11 : Configuration for the X Window system
|- keytables : Keyboard translation tables
+- skel : Skeleton user configuration
/etc/X11 is the recommended location for all X11 machine-local
configuration. This is necessary to allow for local control and read-
only mounting of /usr. Files that should be in here include `Xconfig',
`xdm-config', with possible subdirectories for window managers, and
other files that are considered to be configuration such as `Xmodmap',
`Xserverrc', `Xinitrc', `Xresources', etc.
/etc/keytables is the location for all keyboard translation tables used
by loadkeys(1). This is required on the root partition so that all
keyboard types can be supported (even in emergencies).
/etc/skel is the location for so-called "skeleton" user files that are
given by default to new users when receiving an account. This directory
often contains subdirectories for different user groups (e.g.,
/etc/skel/staff or /etc/skel/users). Note that some people prefer to
place a "skel" subdirectory in each directory of user accounts. Either
of the two approaches is acceptable at this time.
This is a listing of the general files that are placed directly into
/etc. It is not exhaustive. Also, some of the required files are not
technically essential. For instance, if a system doesn't have printing
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
capability, then the `printcap' file is not needed.
REQUIRED files for /etc:
o general files:
These files are needed on most Linux systems.
{ adjtime, csh.login, fdprm, fstab, gettydefs, group, inittab, issue,
ld.so.conf, magic, motd, mtab, mtools, passwd, printcap, profile,
securetty, shells, termcap, ttytype, utmp }
The LILO configuration file, `lilo.conf', is required if LILO is used
as the system's boot manager.
o networking files:
These are only needed if networking is installed.
{ exports, ftpusers, gateways, hosts, host.conf, hosts.equiv,
inetd.conf, networks, protocols, resolv.conf, rpc, services }
There are two models for setup of the "rc" command scripts which are
invoked by init(8) at boot time, the /etc/rc.* (BSD model) and the
/etc/rc.d/* (System V model). Either model is acceptable at this time.
This is a local issue and the implementation that is used should be
determined by the system administrator or the developer.
The `wtmp' log file belongs in /var/adm because it can grow in size
without bound.
Systems that use the shadow password suite will have additional
configuration files in /etc (/etc/shadow and others) and /usr/sbin
(`useradd', `usermod', et cetera).
Systems that use "getty_ps" will have a few additional configuration
files in /etc and /etc/default. Since, getty_ps is the only program
which makes use of /etc/default, it is recommended that /etc/getty_ps be
used instead.
3.5. /home : User home directories (optional)
/home is a fairly standard concept, but it is clearly a site-specific
filesystem. The setup will differ from machine to machine. This is
only a suggested placement for user home directories, but we recommend
that all Linux distributions use this as the default home directory.
On small systems, each user's directory is typically one of the many
subdirectories of /home such as /home/smith, /home/linus,
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
/home/operator, etc.
On large systems (especially when the /home directories are mounted
across a number of machines using NFS) it is a good idea to subdivide
user home directories. Subdivision can be accomplished by using
subdirectories such as /home/staff, /home/guests, /home/students, etc.
Different people prefer to place user accounts in a variety of places.
Therefore, no programming should rely on this location. If you want to
find out a user's home directory, you should use the "pwd" system calls
rather than relying on /etc/passwd, because user information may be
stored remotely.
3.6. /lib : Shared libraries (needed to run dynamically linked binaries)
Only the shared library images necessary to boot the system should be
placed in /lib. The shared library images are "/lib/libc.so.*",
"/lib/libm.so.*", and "/lib/ld.so" (and not the actual ".a" files).
Shared libraries that are only necessary for binaries in /usr (such as
any X Window binaries) do not belong in /lib. Only the shared libraries
required to run binaries in /bin and /sbin should be here.
For compatibility reasons, /lib/cpp needs to exist as a reference to the
C preprocessor installed on the system. The usual placement of this
binary is /usr/lib/gcc-lib/<target>/<version>/cpp. /lib/cpp can either
point at this binary, or at any other reference to this binary which
exists in the filesystem. (For example, /usr/bin/cpp is also often
used.)
3.7. /mnt : Mount point for temporarily mounted filesystems
This is the location where the system administrator may temporarily
mount filesystems as needed. The setup of this directory is a local
issue and should not affect the manner in which any program is run.
This directory should probably not be used by installation programs due
to its site-specific nature of it. A temporary directory not in use by
the system should be used instead.
3.8. /proc : Proc based process system
The procps filesystem is already becoming the de-facto standard Linux
method for handling process information rather than /dev/kmem and other
methods. This is strongly recommended as it should become the standard
for the storage and retrieval of process information as well as other
kernel and memory information.
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
3.9. /root: home directory for root (optional)
/ is traditionally the home directory of the root account on UNIX
systems. /root is used on many Linux systems and on some UNIX systems.
The root home directory is determined by developer or local preference.
/, /root, and /home/root are all acceptable locations as far as this
standard is concerned.
If the home directory for root is stored on a different partition than
the root partition, it is necessary to make certain that `login' will
default to / if root's home directory can not be located.
Note: It is preferred practice not to use the root account for mundane
things such as mail and news, but solely for systems administration.
For this reason, subdirectories such as "Mail" and "News" should not
appear in the root account's home directory. Mail is usually forwarded
to a more appropriate account.
3.10. /sbin : System binaries (binaries once kept in /etc)
Utilities used for system administration (and other root-only commands)
are stored in /sbin, /usr/sbin, and /usr/local/sbin. /sbin typically
contains files essential for the booting phase of starting the system
up. Anything executed after /usr is known to be mounted (when there are
no problems) should be placed into /usr/sbin. Local-only system
administration stuff should now be placed into /usr/local/sbin.
Deciding what things go into "sbin" directories is simple: If a user
will need to run it, then it should go somewhere else. If it will only
be run by system administrators or as root from system management
scripts, then it should go in /sbin (or in /usr/sbin or /usr/local/sbin
it the item is not vital to system operation).
Files such as `chfn' which users only occasionally use should still be
placed in /usr/bin. `ping', although it is absolutely necessary for
root (network recovery and diagnosis) is often used by users and should
live in /bin for that reason.
Ordinary users should not have to place any of the "sbin" directories in
their path.
Users should have execute permission for everything that is not suid in
/sbin. The division between /bin and /sbin was not created for security
reasons or to prevent users from seeing the OS, but to provide a good
division between binaries that everyone uses and the ones that are
primarily used for administration tasks. There is no inherit security
advantage in making /sbin off-limits for users.
REQUIRED files for /sbin:
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
o general commands:
{ clock, getty, init, update, mkswap, swapon, swapoff }
o shutdown commands:
{ halt, reboot, shutdown }
o filesystem commands:
{ fdisk, fsck, fsck.*, tunefs (Ext2 only), mkfs, mkfs.* }
"*" = (ext, ext2, minix, msdos, xiafs)
o LILO commands:
{ lilo }
o networking commands:
{ arp, ifconfig, ifsetup, route }
OPTIONAL files for /sbin:
o static binaries:
Static ln and static sync are useful when things go wrong. The
primary use of sln (to repair hosed symlinks in /lib after a poorly
orchestrated upgrade) is no longer a major factor now that the
`ldconfig' program exists and can act as a guiding hand in upgrading
the dynamic libraries. Static sync is useful in some emergency
situations. Note that these need not be just statically compiled
versions of `ln' and `sync'.
The `ldconfig' binary is optional for /sbin as well, since if you use
it properly when upgrading the shared libraries in /lib, you won't
need it in root.
{ ldconfig, sln, ssync }
o miscellaneous:
Due to the fact that some keyboards come up with such a high repeat
rate as to be unusable, `kbdrate' is necessary on some systems.
{ kbdrate }
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
3.11. /tmp : temporary files
/tmp is used for temporary files, preferably on a fast device (a memory
based filesystem, for instance).
The "persistence" of the data that is stored in /tmp is different from
that which is stored in /var/tmp. /tmp is usually cleaned out at boot
time (or at relatively frequent intervals). Because of this, data
stored in /tmp should not be expected to remain for any long period of
time on the system... it is frequently deleted.
Programs should use /tmp or /var/tmp (which was originally /usr/tmp)
according to the expected persistence of the data, but should not rely
on any particular persistence for any tmp directories.
The precise arrangement of /tmp and /var/tmp is a local issue. If there
are distinct /var/tmp and /tmp directories, then the persistence of
/var/tmp files should be at least as long as for /tmp, but beyond that,
a site administrator or distributor can arrange this any way they want,
over RAM disk, symlinks, or whatever.
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
4. The /usr directory
/usr is the second major division of the filesystem. /usr is sharable
data. That means that /usr should be sharable between various machines
running Linux. Because it is sharable between machines, any information
that is machine-local must be stored elsewhere, hence /var enters the
picture.
Any large package (such as TeX and GNU Emacs) should not use a
subdirectory of /usr. Instead, there should be a subdirectory inside
/usr/lib, or /usr/local/lib (if it was installed totally locally).
/usr : Second major mount point (permanent)
|
|- X386 : X Window system on x86 platforms
|- bin : Most user commands
|- dict : Word lists
|- doc : Miscellaneous documentation
|- etc : Site-wide system configuration
|- g++-include : GNU C++ include files
|- games : Games and educational binaries
|- include : Header files included by C programs
|- info : GNU Info system's primary directory
|- lib : Libraries
|- local : Local directory (empty after main installation)
|- man : Online manuals
|- sbin : Non-vital system administration binaries
|- share : Architecture-independent data
+- src : Source code
The following list of directory symbolic links need to be added. This
only needs to be done until compatibility with the /var scheme can be
assumed to exist.
/usr/adm -> /var/adm
/usr/preserve -> /var/preserve
/usr/spool -> /var/spool
/usr/tmp -> /var/tmp
/var/spool/locks -> /var/lock
The above symlinks should become unnecessary as packages that use the
old locations are changed to support the new ones in /var.
The GNU Emacs lock file directory, if Emacs is installed, should be a
symlink pointing to /var/lock/emacs if you want to be able to mount /usr
read-only. It is usually found in /usr/emacs, /usr/lib/emacs, or
/usr/local/lib/emacs (preferably not the first). Further information on
this is located in section 5.3, "/var/lock".
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
4.1. /usr/X386 : X Window system on x86 platforms
This hierarchy is reserved for the use of XFree86 X11 releases.
/usr/X386 : XFree86 installation directory
|
|- bin
|- doc
|- include
|- lib
+- man
To simplify matters and make XFree86 more compatible with other X11
packages, our recommendation is to place the following symbolic links on
your system:
/usr/bin/X11 -> /usr/X386/bin
/usr/lib/X11 -> /usr/X386/lib/X11
/usr/include/X11 -> /usr/X386/include/X11
4.2. /usr/bin : Most user commands
/usr/bin : Binaries that are not needed in single-user mode.
|
|- mh : commands for the MH mail handling system
+- X11 : symlink to /usr/X386/bin
This is the primary directory of executable commands on the system.
4.3. /usr/dict : Word lists
REQUIRED files for /usr/dict:
{ words }
Traditionally this directory contains only the English `words' file,
which is used by look(1) and various spelling programs. `words' may use
either American or British spelling. Sites that require both may link
`words' to /usr/dict/american-english or /usr/dict/british-english.
Word lists for other languages may be added using the English name for
that language, e.g., /usr/dict/french, /usr/dict/danish, etc. These
should probably use an ISO 8859 character set which is appropriate for
the language in question; if possible the Latin1 (ISO 8859-1) character
set should be used (this is often not possible).
The rationale behind having only word lists here is that they are the
only files used by all spell checkers. For example, ispell(1) uses a
complicated format for its "hashed dictionaries" that is only useful to
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
ispell and should thus go in /usr/lib/ispell.
4.4. /usr/etc : site-wide system configuration
Storing configuration in /usr/etc for the software found in /usr/bin and
/usr/sbin is a problem. It makes the read-only mounting of /usr through
CD-ROM or NFS delivery very difficult at best.
One possible solution that we considered was to completely eliminate
/usr/etc and specify that all configuration be stored in /etc. A
problem with this approach is that it does not properly anticipate the
possibility that many sites may want to have some configuration files
that are not machine-local.
We eventually decided that /etc should be the only directory that is
actually referenced by programs (that is, everything should look for
configuration in /etc and not in /usr/etc). Any configuration files
that need to be site-wide and are not needed before /usr is mounted (or
in an emergency situation) should then be placed in /usr/etc. Then,
specific files (in /etc) on specific machines may or may not be
symbolically linked to appropriate configuration files located in
/usr/etc. This also means that /usr/etc is technically an optional
directory in the strictest sense, but we still expect all Linux systems
to incorporate it.
It is not recommended for /usr/etc to contain symbolic links that point
to files in /etc. This is unnecessary and would interfere with local
control over machines that share a /usr directory.
4.5. /usr/include: Directory for standard include files.
This is where all of the system's general-use include files should be
placed.
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
/usr/include: include files.
|
|- X11 : Symlink to /usr/X386/include/X11
|- arpa : ARPAnet defined protocol definitions
|- asm : Symlink to /usr/src/linux/include/asm
|- bsd : BSD compatibility include files
|- gnu : GNU include files
|- linux : Symlink to /usr/src/linux/include/linux
|- net : Generic network-related definitions
|- netax25 : +AX25 (ARRL AX.25) specific definition
|- netinet : TCP/IP specific networking stuff
|- netipx : +IPX (Novell IPX/SPX) specific definitions
|- protocols : Protocol definitions (mostly INET-based)
|- readline : The GNU readline library
|- rpc : Sun Microsystems RPC definitions
|- rpcsvc : Sun Microsystems RPC service definitions
+- sys : System generation include files
Note that not all of these subdirectories are required.
The "arpa" subdirectory contains "ARPAnet" defined protocol definitions,
TCP/IP conversion functions, definitions for "ftp", "telnet" prototypes,
and more.
The "net" subdirectory contains generic network-related definitions. It
usually defines the system kernel interface, protocol family details,
etc.
The "netinet" subdirectory contains TCP/IP specific networking stuff
INET (DARPA Internet, also known as TCP/IP) specific definitions.
"ARRL AX.25" is better known as packet radio and "Novell IPX/SPX" is
better known as Novell NetWare.
4.6. /usr/lib : Libraries for programming and packages
/usr/lib : Libraries for programming and packages
|
|- X11 : Symbolic link to /usr/X386/lib/X11
|- emacs : Support files for the GNU Emacs editor
|- groff : Libraries/directories for GNU groff
|- gcc-lib : System specific files/directories for `gcc'
|- mh : Libraries for the MH mail handling system
|- mf : Meta-Font data
|- news : Cnews/INN
|- smail : Smail
|- terminfo : Directories for terminfo database
|- tex : TeX (and LaTeX) data libraries
|- uucp : Commands for uucp
+- zoneinfo : Timezone information and configuration
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
The directory /usr/lib includes static data files and a few internal
programs such as `sendmail' and `makewhatis'. Since `makewhatis' is not
referenced by other programs, it may can be relocated to /usr/sbin, but
`sendmail' should remain in /usr/lib. The `catman' binary, located in
/usr/sbin, replaces `makewhatis' on many Linux systems.
If `smail' is used, it should be stored in /usr/bin because both normal
users and administrators will often want to use it from the command
line. /usr/lib/sendmail should also be linked to /usr/bin/smail, of
course.
Any program or package which requires special data (non-variable) should
store it in /usr/lib, or in /usr/local/lib (if it is installed locally).
It is recommended that a subdirectory be used in /usr/lib for this
purpose.
Note: No host-specific data for the X Window system should be stored in
/usr/lib/X11 (which is really /usr/X386/lib). Host-specific
configuration should be stored in /etc/X11 and host-specific variable
data should be stored in /var/X11.
4.7. /usr/local : Local directory
/usr/local : Local directory
|
|- bin : Local only binaries
|- doc : Local Documentation
|- etc : Configuration for local only binaries
|- games : Locally installed games
|- lib : Libraries for /usr/local
|- info : Local info pages
|- man : Man page hierarchy for /usr/local
|- sbin : Local only system administration
+- src : Local source code
The /usr/local directory is used by the system administrator to install
software that needs to be safe from being overwritten when the system
software is updated. It is used to store anything that is sharable among
a group of machines, but not found in /usr.
This directory should always be empty after first installing Linux. No
exceptions to this rule should be made other than the listed directory
stubs.
Locally installed software should be placed within /usr/local rather
than /usr unless it is being installed to replace or upgrade software in
/usr or it is felt that the installed software is "important enough" to
place in /usr or in /. Note that software placed in / or /usr will
often be overwritten with complete system upgrades (unless proper
backups are made). For this reason, local software should not be placed
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
outside of /usr/local without good reason.
4.8. /usr/man : Manual pages
/usr/man : Manual page hierarchy
|
|- man1 : User programs
|- man2 : System calls
|- man3 : Library functions and subroutines
|- man4 : Devices
|- man5 : File formats
|- man6 : Games
|- man7 : Miscellaneous
|- man8 : System Administration
+- man9 : Kernel internal variables and functions
The cat page sections (cat[1-9]) containing formatted manual page
entries are also found within subdirectories of /usr/man, but are not
required nor should they be distributed in lieu of nroff source manual
pages.
Local and X Windows manual pages (if present) should be stored in
/usr/local/man and /usr/X386/man, respectively. These directories have
a similar structure to /usr/man (man[1-9], cat[1-9], empty
subdirectories being omitted).
The MH mail handling system manual pages should have "mh" affixed to all
manual page filenames. X11 manual pages usually have "x" affixed to all
X11 manual pages.
As Linux (and UNIX) is further used in non-English speaking countries
and manual pages are translated to non-English versions, there is the
impending problem that these manual pages will have to be stored
somewhere else. Some German releases of Linux have already created a
manual page system that is placed in /usr/man with the suffix "g". This
is a poor solution and will cause further problems in the long run as
other languages appear, especially other languages starting with the
same letter (Greek, Gaelic, whatever).
Therefore, all non-English manual pages sections should be stored in
subdirectories within /usr/man named according to the language that the
the contained manual pages are written in (lowercase characters), hence,
for the German manual pages:
/usr/man/german/man[1-9] and possibly /usr/man/german/cat[1-9]
Then, German-speaking Linux users can add /usr/man/german to their
manual search path before /usr/man so that /usr/man/german manual pages
are referenced first. An even better scheme found on HP-UX systems is a
manual pager (and more) that obeys a $LANG environment variable. If a
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
German manual page is not found for a given command then the English
version may be referenced.
This setup will be needed as the number of foreign (non-English) manual
pages increases. German is the language mentioned here since it is the
only non-English manual page system distributed with any Linux system at
this time. Other languages will probably follow and they should follow
this scheme as well.
The practice of placing non-English in subdirectories of /usr/man should
be followed as well for other manual page hierarchies, such as
/usr/local/man and /usr/X11/man.
Note: Using the language's own name for itself (/usr/man/deutsch) rather
than the English (/usr/man/german) was considered, but this was met with
disapproval from many people, including those who do not speak English
as a first language. The reasons include: simplicity, the difficulty in
displaying many languages' names in ASCII characters, and the fact that
everyone should be able to recognize their language name in English.
A description of each section follows:
o man1: User programs
Manual pages that describe publicly accessible commands are
contained in this chapter. Most program documentation that a user
will need to use is located here.
o man2: System calls
This section describes all of the system calls which are entries
to the Linux kernel (operating system). This section can be very
useful to programmers, but users have little need of the items in
section 2.
o man3: Library functions and subroutines
Section 3 describes user-level library routines. This is another
chapter that is only really of interest to programmers.
o man4: Special files
Section 4 describes the special files, related driver functions,
and networking support available in the system. Typically, the
device files found in /dev.
o man5: File formats
The formats for many nonintuitive data files are documented in the
section 5. This includes various include files, program output
files, and system files.
o man6: Games
This chapter documents games, demos, and generally trivial
programs. Different people have various notions about how
essential this is.
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
o man7: Miscellaneous
Manual pages that are difficult to classify are designated as
being section 7. The troff and other text processing macro
packages are found here.
o man8: System administration
Documentation for programs used by system administrators for
system operation and maintenance are documented here. Some of
these programs are also occasionally useful for normal users.
o man9: Kernel internal variables and functions
This is used on Linux systems to document the kernel source code.
4.9. /usr/sbin : Non-essential standard system binaries
This directory contains any non-essential binaries used exclusively by
the system administrator. System administration programs that are
required for system repair, system recovery, mounting /usr, or other
essential functions should be placed in /sbin instead.
Typically, /usr/sbin contains networking daemons, any non-essential
administration tools, and binaries for non-critical server programs.
These server programs are used when entering the System V states known
as "run level 2" (multi-user state) and "run level 3" (networked state)
or the BSD state known as "multi-user mode". At this point the system
is making services available to users (e.g., printer support) and to
other machines (e.g., NFS exports).
Local system administration programs should be placed in
/usr/local/sbin.
4.10. /usr/share : Architecture-independent data
Any specifications for /usr/share will be included in a supplementary
drafts to the main FSSTND standard. Note that it is the consensus
opinion of FSSTND that /usr/share is not needed on the majority of Linux
systems. At this time, confining ourselves by providing an extensive
definition of this directory would be a bad idea.
Please refer to section 6.2 for more detailed description of /usr/share.
4.11. /usr/src : Source code
/usr/src : Source code
|
+- linux : Source code for Linus' kernel
Any non-local source code should be placed in this subdirectory. The
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
only source code that should always be placed in a specific location is
the kernel source (when present or linked in part to the /usr/include
structure). Subdirectories may be used here if desired.
The source code for the kernel should always be in place or at least the
include files from the kernel source. Those files are located in these
directories:
/usr/src/linux/include/asm
/usr/src/linux/include/linux
/usr/include usually contains links to `asm' and `linux' in the source
directory. Since they are needed by the C compiler, at least those
include files should always be distributed with installations. They
should also be distributed in the /usr/src/linux directory so there are
no problems when system administrators upgrade their kernel version for
the first time.
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
5. The /var directory
/var : Directories of files that tend to grow or vary in size
|
|- X11 : Variable files/directories for the X Window System
|- adm : System logging and accounting files
|- catman : Locally-formatted manual pages
|- lock : Lock files
|- named : DNS files (for `named'), networking only
|- preserve : Saved text edited by `vi' after crash or hang-up
|- spool : Directories for queue work to be performed later
+- tmp : Temporary files, used to keep /tmp small.
The directory for variable data files. This includes spools,
administrative files, logging files, transient files, and temporary
files.
A good reason to use /var is to make it possible to mount /usr read-
only. Everything that once went into /usr that is written to on a
temporary basis, now goes into /var. The aforementioned symbolic links,
also mentioned below in the issues and rationale section, should be
added to /usr for compatibility. This is very helpful if you are
mounting /usr through NFS, if you want a read-only /usr for safety
reasons, or your /usr is mounted from read-only media such as a CD-ROM.
5.1. /var/X11 : Variable data for the X Window System
/var/X11 : Host-specific data relevant to X
|
+- xdm : X display manager files
The standard program used to provide a per-machine login environment is
XDM. XDM binaries should still be placed in the previous location in
/usr/X386/lib/X11/xdm (e.g., `chooser').
5.2. /var/adm : System logging and accounting files
All system logging should be written to this subdirectory and not to
/var/log. `wtmp' and `lastlog' should be stored here.
/var/adm is also the appropriate location for all distribution packaging
support. Until there is a common Linux packaging format, package data
should be stored in "distribution specific" subdirectories of this
directory.
5.3. /var/catman : Locally-formatted manual pages (optional)
This directory provides a standard location for sites that provide a
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
read-only /usr partition, but wish to allow caching of locally-formatted
man pages. Sites that mount /usr as writeable (e.g., single-user
installations) may choose not to use /var/catman and write formatted man
pages into the cat[1-9] directories in /usr directly. Most sites should
use one of the following options instead:
o Preformat all manual pages in /usr with the `catman' program.
o Allow no caching of formatted man pages, and require nroff to be
run each time a man page is brought up.
o Allow local caching of formatted man pages in /var/catman.
The structure of /var/catman needs to reflect both the fact of multiple
man page hierarchies and the possibility of multiple language support.
Given a formatted man page that would normally appear in /usr/<path1>,
the cached formatted version should go in /var/catman/<path2>, where
<path2> is <path1> without the `man' component. Thus /usr/man/cat1/ls.1
ends up in /var/catman/cat1/ls.1, and /usr/X386/man/german/cat3/foo.3 in
/var/catman/X386/german/cat3/foo.3.
Note: current versions of the `man' program do not support this proposed
standard. Until such support is available, sites will have to choose
between preformatting cat pages in /usr (or mounting /usr as writeable),
and symlinking the various cat[1-9] directories to the appropriate
subdirectory of /var/catman.
Local policy will dictate whether man pages written to /var/catman are
eventually transferred to /usr, and whether formatted man pages in /usr
are expired if they are not accessed for a period of time.
5.4. /var/lock : Lock files
Lock files should be stored within the /var/lock directory structure.
/var/lock : Lock files
|
+- emacs : Emacs lock files
To preserve the ability to mount /usr read-only, no lock files or lock
file systems should be stored on the /usr partition.
Device lock files, such as the serial device lock files which are found
in /usr/spool/locks or /usr/spool/uucp, should be stored in /var/lock.
The naming convention which should be followed is `LCK..{device}'. For
instance, if you are using a program which uses /dev/cua0, then it
should create a lock file, `/var/lock/LCK..cua0'. The format used for
Linux device lock files should be the HDB style. The HDB style is to
write the locking process ID in ASCII, padded with leading zeroes to ten
characters, followed by a newline.
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
Then, anything wishing to use /dev/cua0 can observe the lock file and
act accordingly.
Programs with large lock file systems should use a subdirectory of
/var/lock. For instance, GNU Emacs normally stores Emacs lock files in
/usr/lib/emacs/lock -- this poses a serious problem if you are trying to
mount /usr read-only. Emacs lock files should instead be placed in
/var/lock/emacs.
If you are a developer/maintainer of an application which uses lock
files in any manner, it is a good idea to contact the FSSTND mailing
list or me to discuss the arrangement of your lock files.
At this time, lock files which are stored in /etc, such as pid lock
files, should remain in /etc.
5.5. /var/named : DNS and `named' files
This is only needed for systems running a DNS name server (networking
protocol for name servers).
5.6. /var/spool : Spool directories
/var/spool is traditionally used for machine-local data being spooled to
or from UNIX subsystems. For example, print jobs are spooled here for
delivery to the lpd system, out-bound mail is spooled for delivery to
remote systems, and uucp files are spooled for writing to UUCP
neighbors. In-bound mail and news are spooled here for delivery to
users, and at and cron jobs are spooled for delayed execution by the
cron daemon.
/var/spool : Spool directories
|
|- at : at jobs
|- cron : Cron jobs
|- lpd : Printer spool directory
|- mail : Directory for user mailboxes
|- mqueue : Outgoing mail queue
|- news : News spool directory
+- uucp : Spool directory for uucp
UUCP lock files should be placed in /var/lock. See the above section on
/var/lock.
5.5.1. /var/spool/lpd
/var/spool/lpd : Printer spool directory
|
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
|- {printer} : Spools for a specific printer
+- {printer}/lock : Lock file for a specific printer
The lock file for lpd, `lpd.lock', should be placed in /var/spool/lpd.
The lock file for each printer should be placed in the spool directory
for that specific printer.
5.7. /var/tmp : temporary files, used to keep /tmp small
Files in /var/tmp are stored for an unspecified duration (please
remember that system temporary directories are not guaranteed to hold
data for any particular duration).
Data stored in /var/tmp is typically cleaned out "in a site-specific
manner", but usually at less frequent intervals than /tmp. More
information on temporary directories is in the section of the standard
devoted to /tmp (above).
/usr/tmp is usually symlinked to /var/tmp for compatibility reasons.
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
6. Issues and Additional Rationale
This section discusses several areas that may require further
explanation.
6.1. What is Essential?
The answer is: essential to clean, create, prepare, check, find and
mount other filesystems (possibly on remote machines). There are other
definitions, but this is a general definition that most people will at
least incorporate into their own.
6.2. Networking
Networking presented an interesting dilemma. Some people wanted to
separate networking binaries and configuration from other binaries and
configuration. However, we disagree. We feel that networking is not a
"package", but an integral part of most UNIX (and UNIX-like) machines.
Because of this networking should not be placed into a single directory,
but systematically placed in the appropriate directories.
o /bin: anything a user will want to use that is also considered
vital
{hostname, netstat, ping, ...}
o /sbin: anything only root needs and is considered vital
{arp, ifconfig, ifsetup, route}
o /usr/bin: any binaries a user will want to use, but are not vital
{finger, rcp, rlogin, telnet, ...}
o /usr/sbin: any root only networking binaries that are not vital
{ftpd, inetd, lpd, telnetd, ...}
While this may seem confusing at first (and it does take a moment to
digest), it does make sense. If you can only mount root for some reason
and you need access to networking to repair your system, you don't need
the files to be off in /usr/etc (as they often are). Files that are
needed to mount /usr in normal (and emergency situations) are placed on
the root subtree and any others are placed in /usr in order to keep the
size of root small.
Configuration files for networking belong in /etc.
6.3. Architecture-independent Structures
The structure, /usr/share, typically contains architecture-independent
files such as man-pages, timezone, terminfo information, et al. As of
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
this time, there are no different architectures for Linux, but with the
passage of time we should see Linux include other architectures and
other UNIX-like systems.
One note: no program should ever reference anything in /usr/share. For
instance, a manual page program should never directly look in
/usr/share/man/man1/ls.1, but it should refer to /usr/man/man1/ls.1 at
all times. Anything in /usr/share will be "pointed to" by the use of
symlinks from other areas in the filesystem, such as /usr/man,
/usr/lib/{something}, etc.
The specifications for /usr/share are still be worked out.
6.4. Symbolic Links
There are a wide range of uses for symbolic links (symlinks) in every
filesystem. While symlinks are not encouraged for default setup (found
after installing Linux) in a standard such as this, they are often used
with good purpose on different systems. The point is that symlinks
should be there to keep everything where everyone else expects find it.
Be prepared to accept that certain directories, even those contained on
the root directory, are still going to be symlinks. For instance, on
some systems /home will not be on the root, but symlinked to a /var
directory, or to somewhere else. /home could also have its own physical
partition, of course, and be mounted on its own.
Similarly, because /usr might be on a central file server mounted via
NFS, /usr/local could be symlinked to /var/local. Like
/usr/lib/emacs/lock, this change can be justified by recalling the main
purpose for having /var: to separate directories of files that vary on
different systems and machines from those that may be shared.
Sometimes systems will also link /tmp to /var/{something} if the root
partition becomes too small (or starts out too small). There are more
examples of "good" uses of symbolic links, but the entire issue boils
down to two things: packages should be able to find things where they
expect them (within reason) and symbolic links can be used to solve the
problem in many cases. However, problems also can arise from using too
many symbolic links. These problems include over-reliance on symbolic
links to solve problems, confusion resulting from overuse of symbolic
links, and the aesthetic preferences of different people.
6.5. Statically linked binaries
Linux is currently running on a wide variety of systems, some single
user with small disks, some as servers in large networked environments.
Because of this variety, this standard sets no rule regarding what
binaries are static or dynamic with the following two exceptions. Both
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
`ln' and `sync' should exist in /bin; any statically linked versions may
be placed in /sbin, or replace those in /bin.
Large Linux systems may wish to include other statically linked binaries
(sh, init, mkfs, fsck, tunefs, mount, umount, swapon, swapoff, getty,
login, etc.). The developers and/or system administrators are free to
statically/dynamically link these and other binaries as they see fit, as
long as the location of the binaries doesn't change.
Networked systems (especially those of the future which may lack floppy
drives), may want to make ifconfig, route, hostname, and other
networking utilities static as well. This is usually not needed.
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Linux Filesystem Structure February 10, 1994
The FSSTND mailing list
The FSSTND mailing list is located at linux-fsstnd@ucsd.edu. This list
was originally located on the linux-activists@Niksula.hut.fi "Mail-Net"
as the FSSTND channel. (To subscribe to the list send mail to
listserv@ucsd.edu with the body of "ADD linux-fsstnd".)
Thanks to Network Operations at the University of California at San
Diego who allowed us to use their excellent mailing list server.
Acknowledgments
Credit for this text should be given to the FSSTND activists,
developers, system administrators, and users whose input was essential
to this standard. I also wish to thank each of the contributors who
helped me to write, compile, and compose this, a consensus standard.
I also wish to give real credit to those Linux developers who have seen
that giving Linux a common filesystem layout is something that will
further the development of the Linux operating system.
Original contributors
Drew Eckhardt <drew@kinglear.cs.colorado.edu>
Ian Jackson <ijackson@nyx.cs.du.edu>
Ian McCloghrie <ian@ucsd.edu>
Daniel Quinlan <quinlan@bucknell.edu>
Mike Sangrey <mike@sojurn.lns.pa.us>
David H. Silber <dhs@glowworm.firefly.com>
Theodore Ts'o <tytso@athena.mit.edu>
Stephen Tweedie <sct@dcs.ed.ac.uk>
Additional contributors
Brandon S. Allbery <bsa@kf8nh.wariat.org>
Rik Faith <faith@cs.unc.edu>
Stephen Harris <hsw1@papa.attmail.co>
Fred N. van Kempen <waltje@metallica.uwalt.nl.mugnet.org>
John A. Martin <jmartin@csc.com>
Chris Metcalf <metcalf@catfish.lcs.mit.edu>
Ian Murdock <imurdock@sage.cc.purdue.edu>
David C. Niemi <niemidc@oasis.gtegsc.com>
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