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1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/2.5.3-emphasis.md
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@@ -64,9 +64,9 @@ In natural speech, a large number of common words are weakly pronounced - especi
This phenomenon exists in all kinds of languages. The main reason might be because these words are too common, too easily understood, cannot be misunderstood, relatively unimportant, and so on. As a result, when speakers say these words (or syllables), they tend to speak faster or lighter, even merging or omitting them.
北京人在说 “不知道” 这三个字的时候，有可能说出来的是用拼音都很难标记的 `bù(r)dào`，其中原本应该的 `zhī` 被糊弄成了甚至好像没有韵母的 `r`…… 但，谁都听得懂，哪怕最初不习惯，听个两三次也就适应了。
北京人在说 “不知道” 这三个字的时候，有可能说出来的是用拼音都很难标记的 <span class="pho">bù(r)dào</span>，其中原本应该的 <span class="pho">zhī</span> 被糊弄成了甚至好像没有韵母的 <span class="pho">r</span>…… 但，谁都听得懂，哪怕最初不习惯，听个两三次也就适应了。
For example, when Beijingers say "不知道", it might come out as `bù(r)dào`, where the original `zhī` is mumbled into an `r` that doesn't even seem to have a vowel. But everyone understands it, and even if you're not used to it at first, you'll adapt after hearing it a few times.
For example, when Beijingers say "不知道", it might come out as <span class="pho">bù(r)dào</span>, where the original <span class="pho">zhī</span> is mumbled into an <span class="pho">r</span> that doesn't even seem to have a vowel. But everyone understands it, and even if you're not used to it at first, you'll adapt after hearing it a few times.
某个单词被强读或者被弱读的时候，该单词的元音长短和重音所在（如果是多音节单词的话）都会相应发生变化，具体常见变化如下：
@@ -95,72 +95,72 @@ If a syllable is *weakly pronounced*:
> * Long vowels can get shorter (almost as short as short vowels);
> * 重音音节会变得与非重音音节一样轻；
> * The stressed syllable can be as light as the unstressed syllable;
> * 很多元音都会发生变化，向 *schwa* `ə`（[2.1.3](2.1.3-ʌ)、[2.1.5](2.1.5-ə)）靠拢；
> * Many vowels might change, moving towards *schwa* `ə` ([2.1.3](2.1.3-ʌ)、[2.1.5](2.1.5-ə));
> * 很多元音都会发生变化，向 *schwa* <span class="pho">ə</span>（[2.1.3](2.1.3-ʌ)、[2.1.5](2.1.5-ə)）靠拢；
> * Many vowels might change, moving towards *schwa* <span class="pho">ə</span> ([2.1.3](2.1.3-ʌ)、[2.1.5](2.1.5-ə));
> * 很多与辅音相关的停顿（[2.4.1](2.4.1-stop), [2.4.3.1](2.4.3-cc#_2-4-3-1-省音-elision)）会被直接省略；
> * Many stops or pauses ([2.4.1](2.4.1-stop), [2.4.3.1](2.4.3-cc#_2-4-3-1-省音-elision)) related to consonants can be directly omitted;
> * 清辅音 `s`、`t`、`k`、`f` 之后的元音 `ə` 可能会直接被省略掉；
> * The vowel `ə` after `s`, `t`, `k`, `f` might be directly omitted;
> * 清辅音 <span class="pho">s</span>、<span class="pho">t</span>、<span class="pho">k</span>、<span class="pho">f</span> 之后的元音 <span class="pho">ə</span> 可能会直接被省略掉；
> * The vowel <span class="pho">ə</span> after <span class="pho">s</span>, <span class="pho">t</span>, <span class="pho">k</span>, <span class="pho">f</span> might be directly omitted;
> * 整个单词所处的音高往往是 “高”、“中”、“低” 之中的 “低”，最多是 “中”……
> * The whole word often has a *lower* pitch, or at most *middle* pitch among *high*, *middle*, *low*.
其实，哪怕在单独读某一个单词的时候，其中元音的长短都会受到重音重读的影响。比如，*city* 这个单词，重音在第一个音节上，而两处的元音是一样的：`/ˈsɪ-t̬ɪ/`；但是只要你把第一个音节读得足够重，自然而然就能感觉到**第一个音节**只能比**第二个音节**更长（[2.3.2](2.3.2-stress)）。
其实，哪怕在单独读某一个单词的时候，其中元音的长短都会受到重音重读的影响。比如，*city* 这个单词，重音在第一个音节上，而两处的元音是一样的：<span class="pho alt">ˈsɪ-t̬ɪ</span>；但是只要你把第一个音节读得足够重，自然而然就能感觉到**第一个音节**只能比**第二个音节**更长（[2.3.2](2.3.2-stress)）。
Actually, even when pronouncing a single word, the length of the vowels is influenced by the stress. For example, in the word *city*, the stress is on the first syllable, and both vowels are the same: `/ˈsɪ-t̬ɪ/`. But if you pronounce the first syllable heavy enough, you will naturally feel that the first syllable can only be longer than the second one ([2.3.2](2.3.2-stress)).
Actually, even when pronouncing a single word, the length of the vowels is influenced by the stress. For example, in the word *city*, the stress is on the first syllable, and both vowels are the same: <span class="pho alt">ˈsɪ-t̬ɪ</span>. But if you pronounce the first syllable heavy enough, you will naturally feel that the first syllable can only be longer than the second one ([2.3.2](2.3.2-stress)).
大多数助动词、系动词、介词、连词、冠词、代词，都有两种发音形式：**强读式**（*accented form*）、**弱读式**（*weak form*） —— 这些单词往往都是单音节单词。在自然语流中，它们更多的情况下是以**弱读式**读出的。以下是其中最常见的强读式、弱读式对照列表。注意，以下的列表不能当作硬规则使用，不是所有的虚词都必须被弱读；也不是所有的实词都必须被强读。下面的列表只是在描述现象。
Most *auxiliary verbs*, *linking verbs*, *prepositions*, *conjunctions*, *articles*, and *pronouns* have two pronunciation forms: *accented form* and *weak form* - these words are often single syllable words. In natural speech, they are more often pronounced in the weak form. Below is a list of the most common accented and weak forms. Note, the list below cannot be used as hard rules. Not all function words must be weakly pronounced; not all content words must be stressed. The list below is only describing the phenomenon.
> * a: `/eɪ/` → `/ə/`
> * am: `/æm/` → `/əm, m/`
> * an: `/æn/` → `/ən, n/`
> * and: `/ænd/` → `/ənd, nd, ən, n/`
> * any: `/'eni/` → `/ni/`
> * are: `/ɑ/:` → `/ə/`
> * as: `/æs/` → `/əz/`
> * at: `/æt/` → `/ət/`
> * but: `/bʌt/` → `/bət/`
> * can: `/kæn/` → `/kən, kn, kŋ/`
> * could: `/kud/` → `/kəd, kd/`
> * do: `/duː/` → `/du, də, d/`
> * does: `/dʌz/` → `/dəz/`
> * for: `/fɔː/` → `/fə, f/`
> * from: `/frɔm/` → `/frəm, frm/`
> * had: `/hæd/` → `/həd, əd, d/`
> * has: `/hæz/` → `/həz, əz/`
> * have: `/hæv/` → `/həv, həf, əv, əf/`
> * he: `/hiː/` → `/hi, iː, i/`
> * her: `/həː/` → `/hə, əː, ə/`
> * him: `/him/` → `/im/`
> * his: `/hiz/` → `/iz/`
> * I: `/ai/` → `/aː, ə/`
> * is: `/iz/` → `/s, z/`
> * many: `/'meni/` → `/mni/`
> * me: `/miː/` → `/mi/`
> * must: `/mʌst/` → `/məst, məs/`
> * my: `/mai/` → `/mi/`
> * of: `/əv/` → `/əv, v, f, ə/`
> * our: `/ɑʊɚ/` → `/ɑr` ⭢ `ɑ/`
> * shall: `/ʃæl/` → `/ʃəl, ʃl/`
> * she: `/ʃiː/` → `/ʃi/`
> * should: `/ʃud/` → `/ʃəd, ʃd, ʃt/`
> * so: `/səʊ/` → `/sə/`
> * some: `/sʌm/` → `/səm, sm/`
> * such: `/sʌʧ/` → `/səʧ/`
> * than: `/ðæn/` → `/ðən, ðn/`
> * that: `/ðæt/` → `/ðət/`
> * the: `/ði/:` → `/ði, ðə/`
> * them: `/ðem/` → `/ðəm, ðm, əm, m/`
> * then: `/ðen/` → `/ðən/`
> * to: `/tuː/` → `/tu, tə, t/`
> * us: `/us/` → `/əs/`
> * was: `/wɔz/` → `/wəz, wə/`
> * we: `/wiː/` → `/wi/`
> * were: `/wəː/` → `/wə/`
> * when: `/wen/` → `/wən/`
> * will: `/wɪl/` → `/əl, l`/
> * would: `/wuːd/` → `/wəd, əd/`
> * you: `/juː/` → `/ju, jə/`
> * a: <span class="pho alt">eɪ</span> → <span class="pho alt">ə</span>
> * am: <span class="pho alt">æm</span> → <span class="pho alt">əm, m</span>
> * an: <span class="pho alt">æn</span> → <span class="pho alt">ən, n</span>
> * and: <span class="pho alt">ænd</span> → <span class="pho alt">ənd, nd, ən, n</span>
> * any: <span class="pho alt">'eni</span> → <span class="pho alt">ni</span>
> * are: <span class="pho">/ɑ/:</span> → <span class="pho alt">ə</span>
> * as: <span class="pho alt">æs</span> → <span class="pho alt">əz</span>
> * at: <span class="pho alt">æt</span> → <span class="pho alt">ət</span>
> * but: <span class="pho alt">bʌt</span> → <span class="pho alt">bət</span>
> * can: <span class="pho alt">kæn</span> → <span class="pho alt">kən, kn, kŋ</span>
> * could: <span class="pho alt">kud</span> → <span class="pho alt">kəd, kd</span>
> * do: <span class="pho alt">duː</span> → <span class="pho alt">du, də, d</span>
> * does: <span class="pho alt">dʌz</span> → <span class="pho alt">dəz</span>
> * for: <span class="pho alt">fɔː</span> → <span class="pho alt">fə, f</span>
> * from: <span class="pho alt">frɔm</span> → <span class="pho alt">frəm, frm</span>
> * had: <span class="pho alt">hæd</span> → <span class="pho alt">həd, əd, d</span>
> * has: <span class="pho alt">hæz</span> → <span class="pho alt">həz, əz</span>
> * have: <span class="pho alt">hæv</span> → <span class="pho alt">həv, həf, əv, əf</span>
> * he: <span class="pho alt">hiː</span> → <span class="pho alt">hi, iː, i</span>
> * her: <span class="pho alt">həː</span> → <span class="pho alt">hə, əː, ə</span>
> * him: <span class="pho alt">him</span> → <span class="pho alt">im</span>
> * his: <span class="pho alt">hiz</span> → <span class="pho alt">iz</span>
> * I: <span class="pho alt">ai</span> → <span class="pho alt">aː, ə</span>
> * is: <span class="pho alt">iz</span> → <span class="pho alt">s, z</span>
> * many: <span class="pho alt">'meni</span> → <span class="pho alt">mni</span>
> * me: <span class="pho alt">miː</span> → <span class="pho alt">mi</span>
> * must: <span class="pho alt">mʌst</span> → <span class="pho alt">məst, məs</span>
> * my: <span class="pho alt">mai</span> → <span class="pho alt">mi</span>
> * of: <span class="pho alt">əv</span> → <span class="pho alt">əv, v, f, ə</span>
> * our: <span class="pho alt">ɑʊɚ</span> → <span class="pho">/ɑr</span> ⭢ <span class="pho">ɑ/</span>
> * shall: <span class="pho alt">ʃæl</span> → <span class="pho alt">ʃəl, ʃl</span>
> * she: <span class="pho alt">ʃiː</span> → <span class="pho alt">ʃi</span>
> * should: <span class="pho alt">ʃud</span> → <span class="pho alt">ʃəd, ʃd, ʃt</span>
> * so: <span class="pho alt">səʊ</span> → <span class="pho alt">sə</span>
> * some: <span class="pho alt">sʌm</span> → <span class="pho alt">səm, sm</span>
> * such: <span class="pho alt">sʌʧ</span> → <span class="pho alt">səʧ</span>
> * than: <span class="pho alt">ðæn</span> → <span class="pho alt">ðən, ðn</span>
> * that: <span class="pho alt">ðæt</span> → <span class="pho alt">ðət</span>
> * the: <span class="pho">/ði/:</span> → <span class="pho alt">ði, ðə</span>
> * them: <span class="pho alt">ðem</span> → <span class="pho alt">ðəm, ðm, əm, m</span>
> * then: <span class="pho alt">ðen</span> → <span class="pho alt">ðən</span>
> * to: <span class="pho alt">tuː</span> → <span class="pho alt">tu, tə, t</span>
> * us: <span class="pho alt">us</span> → <span class="pho alt">əs</span>
> * was: <span class="pho alt">wɔz</span> → <span class="pho alt">wəz, wə</span>
> * we: <span class="pho alt">wiː</span> → <span class="pho alt">wi</span>
> * were: <span class="pho alt">wəː</span> → <span class="pho alt">wə</span>
> * when: <span class="pho alt">wen</span> → <span class="pho alt">wən</span>
> * will: <span class="pho alt">wɪl</span> → <span class="pho">/əl, l</span>/
> * would: <span class="pho alt">wuːd</span> → <span class="pho alt">wəd, əd</span>
> * you: <span class="pho alt">juː</span> → <span class="pho alt">ju, jə</span>
[^1]: This example came from *Manual of American English Pronunciation*, 4th edition, by Clifford H. Prator, Jr. BettyWallaceRobinett, 1972
[^1]: This example came from *Manual of American English Pronunciation*, 4th edition, by Clifford H. Prator, Jr. BettyWallaceRobinett, 1972