08-19-1051, chapter 3.2.2

1000-hours/.vitepress/config.mts

@@ -531,9 +531,9 @@ export default withMermaid(
         md.use(mark);
         md.use(ins);
       },
-      // toc: {
+      toc: {
-      //   level: [2, 3, 4]
+        level: [1, 2, 3]
-      // }
+      }
     },
   })
 );

1000-hours/public/jupyter-notebooks/edge-tts-valcab-pronounciation.ipynb

@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@
   },
   {
    "cell_type": "code",
-   "execution_count": 9,
+   "execution_count": 19,
    "id": "71d35cd9",
    "metadata": {},
    "outputs": [
@@ -38,9 +38,12 @@
      "output_type": "stream",
      "text": [
       "['en-US-GuyNeural', 'en-US-AriaNeural']\n",
-      "big\n",
+      "manhatten\n",
-      "../audios/big-stop-us-male.mp3 created\n",
+      "../audios/manhatten-us-male.mp3 created\n",
-      "../audios/big-stop-us-female.mp3 created\n"
+      "../audios/manhatten-us-female.mp3 created\n",
+      " newton\n",
+      "../audios/newton-us-male.mp3 created\n",
+      "../audios/newton-us-female.mp3 created\n"
      ]
     }
    ],
@@ -85,7 +88,7 @@
     "    print(voices)\n",
     "\n",
     "words = \"\"\"\n",
-    "big\n",
+    "\n",
     "\"\"\"\n",
     "\n",
     "for word in words.strip().split(','):\n",
@@ -93,8 +96,8 @@
     "    for i, voice in enumerate(voices):\n",
     "        w = word.strip().lower()\n",
     "        if len(w) > 0:\n",
-    "            filename = f'../audios/{w}-stop-{regions[i]}-{genders[i]}.mp3'\n",
+    "            filename = f'../audios/{w}-{regions[i]}-{genders[i]}.mp3'\n",
-    "            await generate_edge_tts_audio(w, filename, voice=voice, verbose=True, overwrite=False, play=True)\n"
+    "            await generate_edge_tts_audio(w, filename, voice=voice, verbose=True, overwrite=True, play=True)\n"
    ]
   },
   {

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/3.1.5-e.md

@@ -89,7 +89,7 @@
 
 * **a**
   * apple <span class="pho alt">ˈæp.əl</span> <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/apple-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/apple-us-female.mp3"></span>
-  * cat <span class="pho alt">kæt</span> <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/cat-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/cat-us-female.mp3"></span>
+  * pad <span class="pho alt">pæt</span> <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/pad-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/pad-us-female.mp3"></span>
   * glass <span class="pho alt">ɡlæs</span> <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/glass-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/glass-us-female.mp3"></span>
 * **al**
   * calf <span class="pho alt">kæf</span> <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/calf-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/calf-us-female.mp3"></span>

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/3.2.1-pb.md

@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@
 ![articulator-tongue-tip-positions](/images/articulator-tongue-tip-positions.svg)
 
 > * <span class="pho">p̚</span>，嘴唇闭上，而后并没有继续张开，所以没有气流输出，也没有随后极其轻微的 <span class="pho">ɤ</span>。比如 *cup* <span class="pho alt">kʌp</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/cup-stop-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/cup-stop-us-female.mp3"></span>
-> * <span class="pho">g̚</span>，小舌抵住喉咙，而后并没有继续张开，所以没有气流输出，也没有随后极其轻微的 <span class="pho">ɤ</span>。比如 *big* <span class="pho alt">bɪg</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/big-stop-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/big-stop-us-female.mp3"></span>
+> * <span class="pho">g̚</span>，舌背后部抬起来顶住软腭，而后并不离开，所以没有气流输出，也没有随后极其轻微的 <span class="pho">ɤ</span>。比如 *big* <span class="pho alt">bɪg</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/big-stop-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/big-stop-us-female.mp3"></span>
 > * <span class="pho">t̚</span>，舌尖顶到位置 ③，而后并没有离开，所以没有气流输出，也没有随后极其轻微的 <span class="pho">ɤ</span>。比如 *but* <span class="pho alt">bʌt</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/but-stop-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/but-stop-us-female.mp3"></span>
 > * <span class="pho">θ̚</span>，舌尖顶到位置 ①，而后并没有离开，所以没有气流输出，也没有随后极其轻微的 <span class="pho">ɤ</span>。比如 *math* <span class="pho alt">mæθ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/math-stop-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/math-stop-us-female.mp3"></span>
 

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/3.2.10-trdr.md

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # 2.2.11. <span class="pho">tr/dr</span>
 
-<span class="pho">tr/dr</span> 和 <span class="pho">tʃ/dʒ</span> 不一样的地方在于，虽然发声时起始的舌尖位置相同，但，<span class="pho">tr, dr</span> 在发声之前嘴唇要有个缩小成圆形的动作，所以它们开头的音节，总是听起来夹带着一个 <span class="pho">w</span>，*tree* <span class="pho">/triː</span>/ 听起来是 <span class="pho alt">tʃwiː</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/tree-us.mp3" data-audio-uk-male="/audios/tree-uk.mp3"></span>，*dry* <span class="pho alt">draɪ</span> 听起来是 <span class="pho alt">dʒwaɪ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/dry-us.mp3" data-audio-uk-male="/audios/dry-uk.mp3"></span>。
+<span class="pho">tr/dr</span> 和 <span class="pho">tʃ/dʒ</span> 不一样的地方在于，虽然发声时舌尖起始位置相同，但，<span class="pho">tr, dr</span> 在发声之前嘴唇要有个缩小成圆形的动作，所以它们开头的音节，总是听起来夹带着一个 <span class="pho">w</span>，*tree* <span class="pho">/triː</span>/ 听起来是 <span class="pho alt">tʃwiː</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/tree-us.mp3" data-audio-uk-male="/audios/tree-uk.mp3"></span>，*dry* <span class="pho alt">draɪ</span> 听起来是 <span class="pho alt">dʒwaɪ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/dry-us.mp3" data-audio-uk-male="/audios/dry-uk.mp3"></span>。
 
 The difference between the sounds <span class="pho">tr, dr</span> and <span class="pho">tʃ, dʒ</span> lies in the way they are pronounced. Although the initial tongue position is the same for both sets of sounds, with <span class="pho">tr, dr</span>, there's a slight rounding of the lips before voicing. As a result, the starting syllables often sound as if there's a <span class="pho">w</span> blended in. So, the word *tree* <span class="pho alt">triː</span> can sound like <span class="pho alt">tʃwiː</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/tree-us.mp3" data-audio-uk-male="/audios/tree-uk.mp3"></span>, and *dry* <span class="pho alt">draɪ</span> can sound like <span class="pho alt">dʒwaɪ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/dry-us.mp3" data-audio-uk-male="/audios/dry-uk.mp3"></span>.
 

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/3.2.11-tsdz.md

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # 2.2.12. <span class="pho">ts/dz</span>
 
-<span class="pho">ts/dz</span> 和 <span class="pho">s/z</span> 不一样的地方在于发声时起始的舌尖位置，<span class="pho">s/z</span> 起始的舌尖位置贴近但没有接触到牙齿和牙龈的接缝处；但，<span class="pho">ts/dz</span> 的舌尖要再往后一点，和 <span class="pho">t/d</span> 发声时起始的舌尖位置一样，贴在龈脊的那个部位之后开始发声。
+<span class="pho">ts/dz</span> 和 <span class="pho">s/z</span> 不一样的地方在于发声时舌尖起始位置，<span class="pho">s/z</span> 舌尖起始位置贴近但没有接触到牙齿和牙龈的接缝处；但，<span class="pho">ts/dz</span> 的舌尖要再往后一点，和 <span class="pho">t/d</span> 发声时舌尖起始位置一样，贴在龈脊的那个部位之后开始发声。
 
 The difference between <span class="pho">ts/dz</span> and <span class="pho">s/z</span> lies in the initial tongue position during pronunciation. For <span class="pho">s/z</span>, the tip of the tongue is close to, but not touching, the *seam* of the teeth and gums. However, for <span class="pho">ts/dz</span>, the tongue tip is a bit further back, identical to the initial position when pronouncing <span class="pho">t/d</span>. It starts pronouncing from that spot of the *alveolar ridge*.
 

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/3.2.13-lr.md

@@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
 # 2.2.14. <span class="pho">l</span>, <span class="pho">r</span>
 
-<span class="pho">l</span> 发声时起始的舌尖位置与 <span class="pho">t/d</span> 相同 —— 即，位置 ③（参见 [1.4](1.4-articulators)）。
+<span class="pho">l</span> 发声时舌尖起始位置与 <span class="pho">t/d</span> 相同 —— 即，位置 ③（参见 [1.4](1.4-articulators)）。
 
 When pronouncing the 'l' sound, the tip of the tongue starts in the same position as it does for 't/d', i.e. position ③ (as described in [1.4](1.4-articulators)).
 
 ![articulator-tongue-tip-td](/images/articulator-tongue-tip-td.svg)
 
-<span class="pho">r</span> 发声时起始的舌尖位置相对更加靠后 —— 即，位置 ④（参见 [1.4](1.4-articulators)）
+<span class="pho">r</span> 发声时舌尖起始位置相对更加靠后 —— 即，位置 ④（参见 [1.4](1.4-articulators)）
 
 For the 'r' sound, the tongue's tip begins a bit further back, i.e. position ④ (as described in [1.4](1.4-articulators)).
 

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/3.2.2-td.md

@@ -1,49 +1,92 @@
-# 3.2.2. <span class="pho">t/d</span>
+# 3.2.2. <span class="pho">t</span>/<span class="pho">d</span>
 
-虽然每种语言都有这两个辅音，但，英文的 <span class="pho">t/d</span> 的发声关键在于起始的舌尖位置 —— 顶在**龈脊**（*alveolar ridge*）上，而不是贴在牙齿上 —— 即，位置 ③（参见 [1.4](1.4-articulators)）。
+<span class="pho">t</span> 是清辅音，<span class="pho">d</span> 是浊辅音。<span class="pho">d</span> 相对简单；然而，<span class="pho">t</span> 却可能是美式英语里最复杂的音素，所以也是最需要专门练习的辅音之一。
 
-While every language has the consonants <span class="pho">t</span> and <span class="pho">d</span>, the key to pronouncing them in English lies in the starting position of the tip of the tongue - it should touch the *alveolar ridge*, i.e. position ③ (as described in [1.4](1.4-articulators)), not the *teeth*.
+## 3.2.2.1. 示例
+
+<table>
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"><strong>British</strong></td>
+<td colspan="2"><strong>American</strong></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>D.J.</td>
+<td>例词（Example）</td>
+<td>IPA</td>
+<td>例词（Example）</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="pho">t</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-uk-male="/audios/uk_phonetics_sound_town_2023feb.mp3"></span></td>
+<td><b>t</b>ake <span class="pho alt">teɪk</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-uk-female="/audios/take-uk-female.mp3" data-audio-uk-male="/audios/take-uk-male.mp3"></span></td>
+<td><span class="pho">t</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us_phonetics_sound_town_2023feb.mp3"></span></td>
+<td><b>t</b>ake <span class="pho alt">teɪk</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-female="/audios/take-us-female.mp3" data-audio-us-male="/audios/take-us-male.mp3"></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td><span class="pho">t̬</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us_phonetics_sound_cutting_2023feb.mp3"></span></td>
+<td>ci<b>t</b>y <span class="pho alt">ˈsɪt̬.i</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-female="/audios/city-us-female.mp3" data-audio-us-male="/audios/city-us-male.mp3"></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="pho">d</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-uk-male="/audios/uk_phonetics_sound_day_2023feb_001.mp3"></span></td>
+<td><b>d</b>og <span class="pho alt">dɒɡ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-uk-female="/audios/dog-uk-female.mp3" data-audio-uk-male="/audios/dog-uk-male.mp3"></span></td>
+<td><span class="pho">d</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/us_phonetics_sound_day_2023feb_001.mp3"></span></td>
+<td><b>d</b>og <span class="pho alt">dɑːɡ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-female="/audios/dog-us-female.mp3" data-audio-us-male="/audios/dog-us-male.mp3"></span></td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+## 3.2.2.2. 舌尖起始位置
+
+虽然每种语言都有这两个辅音，但，英文的 <span class="pho">t/d</span> 的发声关键在于**舌尖起始位置** —— 顶在**龈脊**（*alveolar ridge*）上，即，位置 ③，而不是贴在牙齿上。
+
+![articulator-tongue-tip-positions](/images/articulator-tongue-tip-positions.svg)
 
 ![articulator-tongue-tip-td](/images/articulator-tongue-tip-td.svg)
 
-在中文普通话里，<span class="pho">t/d</span> 这两个声母发声时起始的舌尖位置贴在牙齿上；你可以试着用中文普通话说一遍 “我踢死你！”（<span class="pho">wǒ tī sǐ nǐ</span>）<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-other="/audios/我踢死你-zh-cn-male.mp3"></span>……
+在中文普通话里，<span class="pho">t/d</span> 这两个声母发声时舌尖起始位置贴在牙齿上；你可以试着用中文普通话说一遍 “我踢死你！”（<span class="pho">wǒ tī sǐ nǐ</span>）<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-other="/audios/我踢死你-zh-cn-male.mp3"></span>……
 
-In Mandarin Chinese, the starting position of the tongue tip for the <span class="pho">t</span> and <span class="pho">d</span> sounds rests on the teeth. You can try this out by saying "wǒ tī sǐ nǐ" (我踢死你！)<span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-other="/audios/我踢死你-zh-cn-male.mp3"></span> in Mandarin.
+所以，对中国人来说，这其实是个相当难以纠正的习惯，因为舌尖总是不由自主地使用母语习惯贴到牙齿上（位置 ①）而不是龈脊上（位置 ③） —— 于是，只能通过大量且高密度的练习建立新习惯。一个很经典的练习词汇是 *student* <span class="pho alt">ˈstuː.dənt</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/student-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/student-us-female.mp3"></span>。
 
-对中国人来说，起初的时候这是个相当难以纠正的习惯，因为舌尖总是不由自主地贴到牙齿上而不是龈脊上 —— 只能通过大量且高密度的练习建立新习惯。
+## 3.2.2.3. 并非 <span class="pho">tə/də</span>
 
-For Chinese speakers, it's a pretty tough to correct at first because the tongue tip instinctively goes to the teeth, not the *alveolar ridge*. It can only be corrected through intense and frequent practice to build a new habit.
+另外，就好像 <span class="pho">p/b</span> 一样，<span class="pho">t/d</span> 在发音的时候也会自然带着一个很轻的 <span class="pho">ɤ</span>，而不是 <span class="pho">ə</span>。若是依据母语的习惯，中国人习惯于将 <span class="pho">t(ɤ)</span> 读作 <span class="pho">tə</span>，将 <span class="pho">d(ɤ)</span> 读作 <span class="pho">də</span>。还是需要为此专门建立一个新习惯。
 
-另外，就好像 <span class="pho">p/b</span> 在发音的时候会自然带着一个很轻的 <span class="pho">ʊ</span> 一样，<span class="pho">t/d</span> 也会自然带着一个很轻的元音，不过，不是 <span class="pho">ə</span> 而是 <span class="pho">ɤ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-other="/audios/Close-mid_back_unrounded_vowel.ogg.mp3"></span> —— 之前提到过，相当于中文里 “思念” 的 “思”（<span class="pho">sī</span>）的韵母（[2.1.10](2.1.10-ɤ)）。
+## 3.2.2.3. <span class="pho">t</span> 的变体
 
-Additionally, just as the <span class="pho">p</span> and <span class="pho">b</span> sound naturally carries a slight <span class="pho">ʊ</span> sound in its pronunciation, the <span class="pho">t</span> and <span class="pho">d</span> sound also carries a light vowel sound. But instead of 'ə', it's <span class="pho">ɤ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-other="/audios/Close-mid_back_unrounded_vowel.ogg.mp3"></span> - as previously mentioned, this is equivalent to the vowel in the Chinese word for 思, which is <span class="pho">sī.</span>
+<span class="pho">t</span> 这个音素 —— 当然也是最常用的一个 —— 也许是美式英语的辅音里最复杂的一个。t 只有在处于重音音节开头的时候才会被正常读出，比如，*take* <span class="pho alt">teɪk</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/take-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/take-us-female.mp3"></span>。
 
-在中文拼音里，<span class="pho">i</span> 在 <span class="pho">t/d</span> 之后相当于英文音标中的 <span class="pho">i</span>；在 <span class="pho">z/c/s</span> 之后的 <span class="pho">i</span> 才会读成 <span class="pho">ɤ</span>…… 所以，依据母语的习惯，中国人习惯于将 <span class="pho">t(ɤ)</span> 读作 <span class="pho">tə</span>，将 <span class="pho">d(ɤ)</span> 读作 <span class="pho">də</span>。需要为此专门建立一个新习惯。
+除了正常音 <span class="pho">t</span> 之外，它有很多变体（*allophone*），比如，弹舌音 <span class="pho">t̬</span>，阻塞音 <span class="pho">t̚</span>，省略音/可选音 <span class="pho">ᵗ</span>，以及很多人不经讲解就完全注意不到的喉塞音 <span class="pho">ʔ</span>。
 
-In the Chinese phonetic system, <span class="pho">i</span> following <span class="pho">t/d</span> is similar to <span class="pho">i</span> in English phonetic notation. Meanwhile, <span class="pho">i</span> after <span class="pho">z/c/s</span> is pronounced as <span class="pho">ɤ</span>. So, according to the habits of their native language, Chinese speakers tend to pronounce <span class="pho">t(ɤ)</span> as <span class="pho">tə</span>, and <span class="pho">d(ɤ)</span> as <span class="pho">də</span>. This calls for establishing a new habit.
+### 3.2.2.3.1. 弹舌音 <span class="pho">t̬</span>
 
-<span class="pho">t</span> 这个音素，也许是美式英语的辅音里最复杂的一个 —— 当然也是最常用的一个。美式英语中，<span class="pho">t</span> 的变体（allophone）至少有以下几种：
+夹在两个元音中间的 <span class="pho">t</span> 会变成接近 <span class="pho">d</span> 的弹舌音 <span class="pho">t̬</span>，比如，*water* <span class="pho alt">ˈwɑːt̬ɚ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/water-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/water-us-female.mp3"></span>。《剑桥英语发声词典》中的美式音标专门为此做了优化，增加了弹舌音 <span class="pho">t̬</span> 的标注 —— 大多数词典并非如此。
 
-The <span class="pho">t</span> sound may be the most complex in American English consonant pronunciations — and certainly one of the most frequently used. In American English, several variations, or *allophones*, of <span class="pho">t</span> exist:
+### 3.2.2.3.2. 阻塞音 <span class="pho">t̚</span>
 
-> * 正常音 <span class="pho">t</span> - 通常是 <span class="pho">t</span> 处于重音音节开头的时候才会被正常读出，比如，*take* <span class="pho alt">teɪk</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/take-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/take-us-female.mp3"></span>。
+处于音节末尾的 <span class="pho">t</span>，有时只是舌尖动作完整，却没有发出声音。即，舌尖顶到龈脊之后并没有送出气流。比如，*but* <span class="pho alt">bʌt̚</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/but-stop-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/but-stop-us-female.mp3"></span>。
-> * Standard <span class="pho">t</span> - This is the typical pronunciation, when <span class="pho">t</span> begins a stressed syllable, as in *take* <span class="pho alt">teɪk</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/take-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/take-us-female.mp3"></span>.
-> * 阻塞音 <span class="pho">t</span> - 处于音节末尾的 <span class="pho">t</span>，有时只是舌尖动作完整，却没有发出声音。即，舌尖顶到龈脊之后并没有送出气流。比如，*cat* <span class="pho alt">kæt</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/cat-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/cat-us-female.mp3"></span>。IPA 里有一个专门的标记符号（<span class="pho">◌̚</span>）用来标注发声器官动作完整却没有发声因而产生停顿（*stop*）的辅音（包括 <span class="pho">t/d/p/b/k/g</span>）。比如，*cat* <span class="pho alt">kæt</span> 会被标注成 <span class="pho alt">kæt̚</span>。
-> * Stop <span class="pho">t</span> - This refers to when the <span class="pho">t</span> is at the end of a syllable, often the tongue completes the movement but no sound is actually made. In other words, the tongue touches the ridge of the alveolar ridge but doesn't release a flow of air. An example of this can be found in the word *cat* <span class="pho alt">kæt</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/cat-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/cat-us-female.mp3"></span>. And in IPA, there's a specific notation symbol, represented as <span class="pho">◌̚</span>, used to mark consonants like <span class="pho">t/d/p/b/k/g</span> that are fully articulated but not voiced, resulting in a *stop*. For instance, the word *cat*, pronounced as <span class="pho alt">kæt</span>, would be notated as <span class="pho alt">kæt̚</span>.
-> * 弹舌音 <span class="pho">t̬</span> - 夹在两个元音中间的 <span class="pho">t</span> 会变成接近 <span class="pho">d</span> 的弹舌音 <span class="pho">t̬</span>，比如，*water* <span class="pho alt">ˈwɑːt̬ɚ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/water-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/water-us-female.mp3"></span>。
-> * Flaping <span class="pho">t̬</span>: When <span class="pho">t</span> is situated between two vowels, it tends to be flaping <span class="pho">t̬</span>, sounding like <span class="pho">d</span>, as in water <span class="pho alt">ˈwɑːt̬ɚ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/water-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/water-us-female.mp3"></span>.
-> * 喉塞音 <span class="pho">ʔ</span> - <span class="pho">m/n/l</span> 之前的 <span class="pho">t</span> 有可能变成喉塞音 <span class="pho">ʔ</span>，比如，*utmost* <span class="pho alt">ˈʌʔˌmoʊst</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/utmost-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/utmost-us-female.mp3"></span>, *fitness* <span class="pho alt">ˈfɪʔnəs</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/fitness-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/fitness-us-female.mp3"></span>, *witness* <span class="pho alt">ˈwɪʔnəs</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/witness-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/witness-us-female.mp3"></span>, 或 *fruitless* <span class="pho alt">ˈfruːtləs</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/fruitless-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/fruitless-us-female.mp3"></span>。如果你不知道喉塞音是什么样的，听听 *Uh-Oh!* <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-female="/audios/Uh-Oh.mp3"></span>—— <span class="pho alt">ʌʔoʊ</span>……
-> * Glottal Stop <span class="pho">ʔ</span> - The <span class="pho">t</span> before <span class="pho">m/n/l</span> might transform into a glottal stop, as in *utmost* <span class="pho alt">ˈʌʔˌmoʊst</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/utmost-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/utmost-us-female.mp3"></span>, *fitness* <span class="pho alt">ˈfɪʔnəs</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/fitness-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/fitness-us-female.mp3"></span>, *witness* <span class="pho alt">ˈwɪʔnəs</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/witness-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/witness-us-female.mp3"></span>, or *fruitless* <span class="pho alt">ˈfruːtləs</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/fruitless-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/fruitless-us-female.mp3"></span>. If you don't understand what is a *glottal stop*, listen to the phrase,  *Uh-Oh!* <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-female="/audios/Uh-Oh.mp3"></span>—— <span class="pho alt">ʌʔoʊ</span>...
-> * 省略音/可选音 <span class="pho">ᵗ</span> - 非重读音节末尾 <span class="pho">n</span> 之后的 <span class="pho">t</span> 可能会被省略掉，比如，*winter* <span class="pho alt">ˈwɪnᵗɚ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/winter-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/winter-us-female.mp3"></span> —— 当然，若是读成 <span class="pho alt">ˈwɪntɚ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/winter-t-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/winter-t-us-female.mp3"></span>也没错……[^1] 。
-> * Optional <span class="pho">ᵗ</span> - The <span class="pho">t</span> following <span class="pho">n</span> at the end of an unstressed syllable might be omitted, as in *winter* <span class="pho alt">ˈwɪnᵗɚ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/winter-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/winter-us-female.mp3"></span> - of course, <span class="pho alt">ˈwɪntɚ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/winter-t-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/winter-t-us-female.mp3"></span>is also correct.[^2]
 
-美式发音中，相对最特殊也需要最多注意和练习的辅音是 <span class="pho">t</span>，元音是 <span class="pho">ɚ/ɝː</span>（[2.1.5](2.1.5-ə)）。
+### 3.2.2.3.3. 省略音/可选音 <span class="pho">ᵗ</span>
 
-In American English pronunciation, the consonant <span class="pho">t</span> and the vowel sound <span class="pho">ɚ/ɝː</span> ([2.1.5](2.1.5-ə)) deserve special attention and practice due to their unique characteristics.
+非重读音节末尾 <span class="pho">n</span> 之后的 <span class="pho">t</span> 可能会被省略掉，比如，*winter* <span class="pho alt">ˈwɪnᵗɚ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/winter-optional-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/winter-optional-us-female.mp3"></span> —— 当然，若是读成 <span class="pho alt">ˈwɪntɚ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/winter-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/winter-us-female.mp3"></span>也没错……[^1] 。
 
-[^1]: 非重读音节末尾的 *nd* 中的 <span class="pho">d</span> 也常常并不发音，最常见的比如 *and* 会被读作 <span class="pho alt">ən</span>，再比如，*a second offer* 会被说成 <span class="pho alt">ə ˈsekən‿ɑːfɚ</span>。甚至，<span class="pho">ntʃ</span> 也常常被读成 <span class="pho">nᵗʃ</span>，比如，*adventure* <span class="pho">/ədˈvenᵗʃɚ/</span>, 或者 *French* <span class="pho">/frenᵗʃ/</span> —— 在 <span class="pho">nᵗʃ</span> 这一点上，美式英语和英式英语都一样。
+### 3.2.2.3.4. 喉塞音 <span class="pho">ʔ</span>
 
-[^2]: In American English, the <span class="pho">d</span> in "*nd*" at the end of an unstressed syllable also often goes silent. For example, "*and*" is usually pronounced as <span class="pho alt">ən</span>. Another instance is "*a second offer*," which sounds like <span class="pho alt">ə ˈsekən‿ɑːfɚ</span>. Even <span class="pho">ntʃ</span> is often pronounced as <span class="pho">nᵗʃ</span>. For example, adventure <span class="pho">/ədˈvenᵗʃɚ/</span> or French <span class="pho">/frenᵗʃ/</span>. In this respect, <span class="pho">nᵗʃ</span>, American English and British English are the same.
+喉塞音 <span class="pho">ʔ</span> 又是一个英语音标体系中都没有收录的国际音标符号。
+
+喉塞音 <span class="pho">ʔ</span> 相当于是 <span class="pho">g</span> 这个音的阻塞音 <span class="pho">g̚</span>, 就好像用阻塞音说 big 时一样，舌背后部抬起来顶住软腭，而后并不离开，所以没有气流输出，感觉声音被卡住了一小下…… 再反复听听 *Uh-Oh!* <span class="pho alt">ʌʔoʊ</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-female="/audios/Uh-Oh.mp3"></span> 就明白了。
+
+<span class="pho">m/n/l</span> 之前的 <span class="pho">t</span> 有可能变成喉塞音 <span class="pho">ʔ</span>，比如，*utmost* <span class="pho alt">ˈʌʔˌmoʊst</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/utmost-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/utmost-us-female.mp3"></span>, *fitness* <span class="pho alt">ˈfɪʔnəs</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/fitness-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/fitness-us-female.mp3"></span>, *witness* <span class="pho alt">ˈwɪʔnəs</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/witness-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/witness-us-female.mp3"></span>, 或 *fruitless* <span class="pho alt">ˈfruːtləs</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/fruitless-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/fruitless-us-female.mp3"></span> —— 当然，所有词典都一样，都统一标注成 <span class="pho">t</span> 而不是 <span class="pho">ʔ</span>。
+
+### 3.2.2.3.5. <span class="pho">t</span> 的浊化
+
+<span class="pho">t</span> 处于 <span class="pho">s</span> 之后的时候会**浊化**，会被读成 <span class="pho">d</span> —— 虽然词典里的音标标注还是 <span class="pho">t</span>，比如 *student*，字典里的标注依然是 <span class="pho alt">ˈstuː.dənt</span>，但读出来的却是 <span class="pho alt">ˈsduː.dənt</span><span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/student-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/student-us-female.mp3"></span>
+。
+
+## 3.2.2.4. <span class="pho">d</span> 的清化
+
+<span class="pho">t</span> 有可能**浊化**…… 与之相对地，<span class="pho">d</span> 也可能**清化**。*ed* 在清辅音 <span class="pho">p</span>, <span class="pho">k</span>, <span class="pho">f</span>, <span class="pho">s</span>, <span class="pho">sh</span>, <span class="pho">ch</span>, <span class="pho">th</span> 之后的时候，读作 <span class="pho">t</span>，其他的时候读作 <span class="pho">d</span>。比如，*hoped* <span class="pho alt">hoʊpt</span> <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/hoped-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/hoped-us-female.mp3"></span>，*laughed* <span class="pho alt">læft</span> <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/laughed-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/laughed-us-female.mp3"></span>，*liked* <span class="pho alt">laɪkt</span> <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/liked-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/liked-us-female.mp3"></span>，*watched* <span class="pho alt">wɑːtʃt</span> <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/watched-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/watched-us-female.mp3"></span>。
 
 ## 拼写（Spellings）
 
@@ -81,3 +124,5 @@ In American English pronunciation, the consonant <span class="pho">t</span> and
   * add <span class="pho alt">æd</span> <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/add-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/add-us-female.mp3"></span>
   * riddle <span class="pho alt">ˈrɪd.əl</span> <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/riddle-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/riddle-us-female.mp3"></span>
   * sudden <span class="pho alt">ˈsʌd.ən</span> <span class="speak-word-inline" data-audio-us-male="/audios/sudden-us-male.mp3" data-audio-us-female="/audios/sudden-us-female.mp3"></span>
+
+[^1]: 非重读音节末尾的 *nd* 中的 <span class="pho">d</span> 也常常并不发音，最常见的比如 *and* 会被读作 <span class="pho alt">ən</span>，再比如，*a second offer* 会被说成 <span class="pho alt">ə ˈsekən‿ɑːfɚ</span>。甚至，<span class="pho">ntʃ</span> 也常常被读成 <span class="pho">nᵗʃ</span>，比如，*adventure* <span class="pho">/ədˈvenᵗʃɚ/</span>, 或者 *French* <span class="pho">/frenᵗʃ/</span> —— 在 <span class="pho">nᵗʃ</span> 这一点上，美式英语和英式英语都一样。

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/3.2.5-sz.md

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # 2.2.6. <span class="pho">s/z</span>
 
-<span class="pho">s/z</span> 对所有人来说都没有什么具体的难度。<span class="pho">s/z</span> 发声时起始的舌尖位置贴近但没有接触到牙齿和牙龈的接缝处 —— 即，位置 ②（参见 [1.4](1.4-articulators)）。
+<span class="pho">s/z</span> 对所有人来说都没有什么具体的难度。<span class="pho">s/z</span> 发声时舌尖起始位置贴近但没有接触到牙齿和牙龈的接缝处 —— 即，位置 ②（参见 [1.4](1.4-articulators)）。
 
 The <span class="pho">s/z</span> sounds don't really pose a challenge for most people. When producing these sounds, the tip of the tongue is close to, but not touching, the *seam* between teeth and gums, i.e. position ② (as described in [1.4](1.4-articulators)).
 

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/3.2.6-θð.md

@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ For many people, producing the sounds <span class="pho">θ/ð</span> can be a ch
 
 English teachers often emphasize that to produce these sounds, you should lightly bite the tip of your tongue with your teeth before vocalizing it - meaning, the tip of your tongue should slightly stick out past your teeth. Utilizing this technique undoubtedly makes your pronunciation clearer, especially when articulating individual syllables or words.
 
-但是，在连贯的自然语音之中，会有大量处于**非重音**位置的 <span class="pho">θ/ð</span> 发声时起始的舌尖位置并没有伸到牙齿之外，只是**贴在牙齿**上而已 —— 即，位置 ①（参见 [1.4](1.4-articulators)）。反过来，即便是处于**重音**位置的 <span class="pho">θ/ð</span>, 也一样可以把发声动作**简化**一下，只要舌尖贴到牙齿上，而后开始发音即可。
+但是，在连贯的自然语音之中，会有大量处于**非重音**位置的 <span class="pho">θ/ð</span> 发声时舌尖起始位置并没有伸到牙齿之外，只是**贴在牙齿**上而已 —— 即，位置 ①（参见 [1.4](1.4-articulators)）。反过来，即便是处于**重音**位置的 <span class="pho">θ/ð</span>, 也一样可以把发声动作**简化**一下，只要舌尖贴到牙齿上，而后开始发音即可。
 
 However, within the flow of natural speech, many instances of the <span class="pho">θ/ð</span> that are in non-stressed positions start with the tongue tip not extending beyond the teeth, but only resting against them— that is, position ① (as described in [1.4](1.4-articulators)). Even when <span class="pho">θ/ð</span> phonemes are in stressed positions, the articulation can be simplified. All you need to do is place the tip of the tongue against the teeth, and then begin to vocalize.
 

1000-hours/sounds-of-american-english/3.2.7-ʃʒ.md

@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ Apart from English, most languages do not have the <span class="pho">ʒ</span> c
 
 Chinese students tend to instinctively substitute <span class="pho">ʒ</span> with <span class="pho">dʒ</span> - a consonant they're familiar with, equivalent to the <span class="pho">zh</span> in Chinese Pinyin. The difference between <span class="pho">ʒ</span> and <span class="pho">dʒ</span> is that, when pronouncing <span class="pho">ʒ</span>, the tip of the tongue is close to but not touching the the *alveolar ridge* while for <span class="pho">dʒ</span>, the tongue tip starts at the the *alveolar ridge* (same position as <span class="pho">ʒ</span> ③).
 
-少数人知道  <span class="pho">dʒ</span> 替代 <span class="pho">ʒ</span> 不是一回事，但，由于舌尖起始位置并不准确，所以他们说出来的 <span class="pho">ʒ</span> 听起来更接近 <span class="pho">r</span> —— 舌尖缩得过头了 —— <span class="pho">r</span> ④ 发声时起始的舌尖位置相对于 <span class="pho">ʒ</span> ③ 要更靠后一点。
+少数人知道  <span class="pho">dʒ</span> 替代 <span class="pho">ʒ</span> 不是一回事，但，由于舌尖起始位置并不准确，所以他们说出来的 <span class="pho">ʒ</span> 听起来更接近 <span class="pho">r</span> —— 舌尖缩得过头了 —— <span class="pho">r</span> ④ 发声时舌尖起始位置相对于 <span class="pho">ʒ</span> ③ 要更靠后一点。
 
 A few understand that substituting <span class="pho">dʒ</span> for <span class="pho">ʒ</span> isn't accurate. However, because their tongue tip positioning isn't precise, their <span class="pho">ʒ</span> sound often ends up sounding more like <span class="pho">r</span> - they retract their tongue tip too far - <span class="pho">r</span> ④ is pronounced with the tongue tip further back compared to <span class="pho">ʒ</span> ③ .